Глава 17. Взгляд снизу

С. 402. Рудольф Вирхов: Rosen, G., “The evolution of social medicine,” in Freeman, H., Levine, S., and Reeder, L., eds., Handbook of Medical Sociology, 2d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972). Также является источником цитат Вирхова.

С. 404. Введение в социальное поведение бабуинов: Strum, S., Almost Human (New York: Random House, 1987); Smuts, B., Sex and Friend in Baboons (New York: Aldine, 1985); Ransom, T., Beach Troop of the Gombe (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1981).

С. 405. Повышенные уровни глюкокортикоидов и другие проблемы у самцов бабуинов с низким рангом: Sapolsky, R., “Adrenocortical function, social rank and personality among wild baboons,” Biological Psychiatry 28 (1990): 862; Sapolsky, R., “Endocrinology alfresco: psychoendocrine studies of wild baboons,” Recent Progress in Hormone Research 48 (1993): 437; Sapolsky, R., and Spencer, E., “Social subordinance is associated with suppression of insulin-like growth factor I in a population of wild primates,” American Journal of Physiology 273 (1997): R1346. Сходные темы для макак-резус: Kaplan, J., Manuck, S., Anthony, M., and Clarkson, T., “Premenopausal social status and hormone exposure predict postmenopausal atherosclerosis in female monkeys,” Obstetrics and Gynecology 99 (2002): 381–83.

С. 407. Обзор различий, связанных со стрессом, при реакции на стресс у других видов: Sapolsky, R., “The physiological and pathophysiological implications of social stress in mammals,» In McEwen, B., ed., Coping with the Environment. Handbook of Physiology (Washington, D. C.: American Physiological Association Press), in press.

С. 408. Обзор для мармозеток: Abbott, D., Saltzman, W., Schultz-Darken, N., and Smith, T., “Specific neuroendocrine mechanisms not involving generalized stress mediate social regulation of female reproduction in cooperatively breeding marmoset monkeys,” in Carter, C., Kirpatrick, B., Liederhendler, I., eds., The Integrative Neurobiology of Affiliation (New York: New York Academy of Sciences Press, 1997).

С. 408. Жизнь занимающих доминирующее положение гиеновых собак и мангустов: Creel, S., Creel, N., and Monfort, S., “Social stress and dominance,” Nature 379 (1996): 212; Creel, S., “Social dominance and stress hormones,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16 (2001): 491. Недавнее исследование с участием Эббота и других специалистов по приматам: Abbott, D., Keverne, E., Bercovith, F., Shively, C., Mendoza, S., Saltzman, W., Snowdon, C., Ziegler, T., Banjevic, M., Garland, T., and Sapolsky, R., “Are subordinates always stressed? Acomparative analysis of rank differences in cortisol levels among primates,” Hormones and Behavior 43 (2003): 67.

С. 409. Введение в культуру животных: Wrangham, R., Chimpanzee Cultures (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); De Waal, F., The Ape and the Sushi Master (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Laland, K., and Hoppitt, W., “Do animals have culture?” Evolutionary Anthropology 12 (2003): 150–59.

С. 409. Склонные к примирению резусы: Gust, D., Gordon, T., Hambright, K., and Wilson, M., “Relationship between social factors and pituitary-adrenocortical activity in female rhesus monkeys,” Hormones and Behavior 27 (1993): 318. Благотворная атмосфера в стае бабуинов: Sapolsky, R., and Share, L., “A pacific culture among wild baboons, its emergence and transmission,” Public Library of Science, Biology, (2004), in press. Бабуины в условиях засухи: Sapolsky, R., “Endocrine and behavioral correlates of drought in the wild baboon,” American Journal of Primatology 11 (1986): 217.

С. 410. Социальная нестабильность как главный стрессор: Sapolsky, R., “The physiology of dominance in stable versus unstable social hierarchies,» In Mason, W., and Mendoza, S., eds., Primate Social Conflict (New York: SUNY Press, 1993); Cohen, S., Kaplan, J., and Cunnick, J., “Chronic social stress, affiliation and cellular immune response in nonhuman primates,” Psychological Sciences 3 (1992): 301.

С. 411. Подавляющие иммунитет эффекты прихода агрессивного самца: Alberts, S., Altmann, J., and Sapolsky, R., “Behavioral, endocrine and immunological correlates of immigration by an aggressive male into a natural primate group,” Hormones and Behavior 26 (1992): 167.

С. 411. Обзор индивидуальных особенностей приматов: Clarke, A., and Boinski, S., “Temperament in nonhuman primates,” American Journal of Primatology 37 (1995): 103.

С. 412. Некоторые исследования рангов у людей: Elias, M., “Cortisol, testosterone and testosterone-binding globulin responses to competitive fighting in human males,” Aggressive Behavior 7 (1981): 215; Meyerhoff, J., Leshansky, M., and Mougey, E., “Effects of psychological stress on pituitary hormones in man” в Chrousos, G., Loriaux, D., and Gold, P., eds., Mechanisms of Physical and Emotional Stress (New York: Plenum Press, 1988); Houston, B., Babyak, M., Chesney, M., Black, G., and Ragland, D., “Social dominance and 22-year all-cause mortality in men,” Psychosomatic Medicine 59 (1997): 5; Mazur, A., and Booth, A., “Testosterone and dominance in men,” Brain and Behavioral Sciences 21 (1997): 353–63. Boehm, C., Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999).

С. 414. Эндокринные последствия победы, достигнутой благодаря приложенным усилиям и благодаря везению: Mazur, A., and Lamb, T., “Testosterone, status and mood in human males,” Hormones and Behavior 14 (1980): 236; McCaul, K., Gladue, B., and Joppa, M., “Winning, losing, mood, and testosterone,” Hormones and Behavior 26 (1992): 486.

С. 414. Бедные сталкиваются с наибольшим количеством стрессоров: McLeod, J., and Kessler, R., “Socioeconomic status differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events,” Journal of Health, Society and Behavior 31 (1990): 162; Cohen, S., and Wills, T., “Stress, social support and the buffering hypothesis,” Psychological Bulletin 98 (1985): 310; Brown, G., and Harris, T., Social Origins of Depression (London: Tavistock, 1978).

С. 415. Угроза потери работы подрывает здоровье: Beale, N., and Nethercott, S., “Job-loss and family morbidity: a study of a factory closure,” Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 35 (1985): 510; Cobb, S., and Kasl, S., Termination: The Consequences of Job Loss, DHEW-NIOSH Publication No. 77–224 (Cincinnati, Ohio: U. S. NIOSH, 1977). Об исследовании работников, которые не принимали диуретики из-за того, что не могли ходить в туалет в рабочее время, рассказывается в Adler, N., Boyce, T., Chesney, M., Folkman, S., and Syme, S., “Socioeconomic inequalities in health: no easy solution,” Journal of the American Medical Association 269 (1993): 3140.

С. 415. Бедные не могут эффективно справляться со стрессорами: Hobfoll, S., Stress, Community and Culture (New York: Plenum, 1998).

С. 416. О детях из монреальской школы: Lupien, S., King, S., Meaney, M., and McEwen, B., “Child’s stress hormone levels correlate with mother’s socioeconomic status and depressive state,” Biological Psychiatry 48 (2000): 976; Kristnson et al., “Antixoidant stat and mortality from coronary heart disease in Lithuanian and Swedish men,” British Medical Journal 314 (1997): 629. В недавнем исследовании было показано, что чем ниже ваш СЭС на гражданской службе в Великобритании (независимо от пола), тем выше поднимаются у вас уровни глюкокортикоидов утром в ожидании начала работы: Kunz-Ebrecht, S., Kirschbaum, C., Marmot, M., and Steptoe, A., “Differences in cortisol awakening response on work days and weekends in women and men from the Whitehall II cohort,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 29 (2004): 516. Но СЭС влияет также на уровни глюкокортикоидов в течение рабочего дня. Однако картина здесь такова, что у мужчин (также находящихся на гражданской службе) более низкий уровень СЭС сопровождается более высокими уровнями глюкокортикоидов. Напротив, у женщин более высокий СЭС предполагает более высокие уровни глюкокортикоидов в течение рабочего дня. См. Steptoe, A., Kunz-Ebrecht, S., Owen, N., Feldman, P., Willemsen, G., Kirschbaum, C., and Marmot, M., “Socioeconomic status and stress-related biological responses over the working day,” Psychosomatic Medicine (2004): in press:

С. 416. Обзоры градиента СЭС/здоровья (наиболее значимые в этой области): Pincus, T., and Callahan, L., “What explains the association between socioeconomic status and health: primarily access to medical care or mind-body variables?” Advances 11 (1995): 4; Syme, S., and Berkman, L., “Social class, susceptibility and sickness,” American Journal of Epidemiology 104 (1976): 1; Adler, N., Boyce, T., Chesney, M., Folkman, S., and Syme, S., “Socioeconomic inequalities in health: no easy solution,” Journal of the American Medical Association 269 (1993): 3140; Anderson, N., and Armstead, C., “Toward understanding the association of SES and health; a new challenge for the biopsychosocial approach,” Psychosomatic Medicine 57 (1995): 213; Evans, R., Barer, M., and Marmor, T., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994); Antonovsky, A., “Social class and the major cardiovascular diseases,” Journal of Chronic Diseases 21 (1968): 65; Marmot, M., “Stress, social and cultural variations in heart disease,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 27 (1983): 377; Levenstein, S., Prantera, C., Varvo, V., Arca, M., Scribano, M., Spinella, S., and Berto, E., “Long-term symptom patterns in duodenal ulcer: psychosocial factors,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 41 (1996): 465; Hahn, R., Eaker, E., Barker, N., Teutsch, S., Sosniak, W., and Krieger, N., “Poverty and death in the United States,” International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 673. Stern, A., “Social adversity, low birth weight, and pre-term delivery,” British Medical Journal 295 (1987): 291; Budrys, G., Unequal Health: How Inequality Contributes to Health or Illness (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003).

Сноска. Болезни, более распространенные у богатых – злокачественная меланома и рак груди: Kitagawa, E., and Hauser, P., Differential Mortality in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973). Различные склерозы: Pincus, T., and Callahan, L., “What explains the association between socioeconomic status and health: primarily access to medical care or mind-body variables?” Advances 11 (1995): 4; Polio: Pincus, T., in Davis, B., ed., Microbiology, Including Immunology and Molecular Genetics, 3d ed. (New York: Harper and Row). Связь между СЭС и госпитализмом рассматривается в Sapolsky, R., “How the other half heals,” Discover (April 1998): 46.

С. 418. Различие в продолжительности жизни в 5–10 лет: Wilkinson, R., Mind the Gap: Hierarchies, Health and Human Evolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000). Различия в несколько десятилетий: Murray, C. J. L., Michaud, C. M., et al. U. S. Patterns of Mortality by County and Race: 1965–1994 (Cambridge, Mass., Burden of Disease Unit, Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, 1998).

Сноска. Данные, касающиеся «Титаника», обсуждаются в Marmot, M., “Epidemiology of SES and health: are determinants within countries the same as between countries?” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896 (1999): 16.

С. 419. Изменение градиента на протяжении веков: Evans, R., Interpreting and Addressing Inequalities in Health: From Black to Acheson to Blair to..? (London: OHE Publications, 2002).

С. 419. СЭС предсказывает состояние здоровья в более поздние годы жизни: Lynch, J., Kaplan, G., Pamuk, E., Cohen, R., Heck, K., Balfour, J., and Yen, I., “Income inequality and mortality in metropolitan areas of the United States,” American Journal of Public Health 88 (1998): 1074. Бедность в начале жизни: Hertzman, C., “The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896 (1999): 85. Обследование монахинь: Snowdon, D., Ostwald, S., and Kane, R., “Education, survival and independence in elderly Catholic sisters 1936–1988,” American Journal of Epidemiology 120 (1989): 999; Snowdon, D., Ostwald, S., Kane, R., and Keenan, N., “Years of life with good and poor mental and physical function in the elderly,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42 (1989): 1055. Здоровье и суммарная доля лет жизни, прожитых в бедности: Hertzman, op. cit.

С. 419. Стресс и оказание экстренной медицинской помощи: Sudnow, D., Passing On: The Social Organization of Dying (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967). Kapral, M., Wang, H., Mamdani, M., Tu, J., “Effect of SES on treatment and mortality after stroke,” Stroke 33 (2002): 268; Goirnick, M., “Disparities in Medicare services: potential causes, plausible explanations, and recommendations,” Health Care Financial Review 21 (2000): 23.

С. 420. Несколько европейских стран: Cavelaars, A., “Morbidity differences by occupational class among men in seven European countries: an application of the Erikson-Goldthorpe social class scheme,” International Journal of Epidemiology 27 (1998): 222. Градиент СЭС в Англии ухудшается: Susser, M., Watson, W., and Hopper, K., Sociology in Medicine, 3d ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1985).

С. 420. Исследование, в ходе которого бедные получали больше предварительно оплаченных медицинских услуг и все равно чаще болели: Oakes, T., and Syme, S., “Social factors in newly discovered elevated blood pressure,” Journal of Health, Society and Behavior 14 (1973): 198.

С. 420. Исследование Мармота: Marmot, “Epidemiology of SES and health,” op. cit.

С. 421. Работа Пинкуса анализируется в Pincus, T., and Callahan, L., “What explains the association between socioeconomic status and health: primarily access to medical care or mind-body variables?” Advances 11 (1995): 4.

С. 423. Люди, никогда не слышавшие о мазках РАР: Harlan, L., Bernstein, A., and Kessler, L., “Cervical cancer screening: who is not screened and why?” American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 885. Сноска. Образование как фактор ухудшения градиента: Asplund, K., “Down with the class society!” Stroke 34 (2003): 2628.

С. 423. Эванс: Evans, “Interpreting and addressing inequalities in health,” op. cit. Уайтхоллское исследование: Marmot, M., and Feeney, A., “Health and socioeconomic status,” in Fink, G., ed., Encyclopedia of Stress (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), vol. 2, 313.

С. 424. Международные модели загрязнения природы: Pacala, S., Bulte, E., List, J., and Levin, S., “False alarm over environmental false alarms,” Science 301 (2003): 1187. Никакой связи между богатством и здоровьем: Marmot, “Epidemiology of SES and health,” op. cit.; Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B., Lochner, K., and Prothrow-Stith, D., “Social capital, income inequality, and mortality,” American Journal of Public Health 87 (1997): 1491. Средняя продолжительность жизни в США и Греции: Bezruchka, S., “Is our society making you sick?” Newsweek (February 2001): 26; Wilkinson, op. cit.

Сноска. Статистика о счастье: Diener, E., Oishi, S., and Lucas, R., “Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life,” Annual Review of Psychology 54 (2003): 403.

С. 426. Исследование Адлер: Adler, N., Epel, E., Castellazzo, G., and Ickovics, J., “Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy white women,” Health Psychology 19 (2000): 586; Adler, N., and Ostrove, J., “SES and health: what we know and what we don’t,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896 (1999): 3; Goodman, E., Adler, N., Daniels, S., Morrison, J., Slap, G., and Dolan, L., “Impact of objective and subjective social status on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents,” Obesity Research 11 (2003): 1018; Singh-Manoux, A., Adler, N., Marmot, M. G., “Subjective social status: its determinants and its association with measures of ill-health in the Whitehall II study,” Social Science and Medicine 56 (2003): 1321; Goodman, E., Adler, N. E., Kawachi, I., Frazier, A. L., Huang, B., and Colditz, G. A., “Adolescents’ perceptions of social status: development and evaluation of a new indicator,” Pediatrics 108 (2001): E31; Ostrove, J. M., Adler, N. E., Kuppermann, M., and Washington, A., “Objective and subjective assessments of socioeconomic status and their relationship to self-rated health in an ethnically diverse sample of pregnant women,” Health Psychology 19 (2000): 613.

С. 427. Фотографии женщин-моделей: Kenrick, D., Montello, D., Gutierres, S., and Trost, M., “Effects of physical attractiveness on affect and perceptual judgments: when social comparison overrides social reinforcement,” Perspectives in Social Psychology Bulletin 19 (1993): 195.

С. 427. Строительные блоки субъективного СЭС: Singh-Manoux, op. cit.

С. 428. Wilkinson, op. cit Показатели детской смертности: Lynch, J., Smith, G. D., Hillemeier, M., Shaw, M., Raghunathan, T., and Kaplan, G., “Income inequality, the psychosocial environment, and health: comparisons of wealthy nations,” Lancet 358 (2001): 194; Hales, S., “National infant mortality rates in relation to gross national product and distribution of income,” Lancet 354 (1999): 2047; Howden-Chapman, P., and Odea, D., “Income, income inequality and health in New Zealand,” in Eckersley, R., Dixon, J., and Douglas, B., eds., The Social Origins of Health and Well-Being (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001): 129. В США: Ross, N. A., Wolfson, M. C., Dunn, J. R., Berthelot, J. M., Kaplan, G. A., and Lynch, J. W., “Relation between income inequality and mortality in Canada and in the United States: cross sectional assessment using census data and vital statistics,” British Medical Journal 320 (2000): 898; Lynch et al., “Income inequality and mortality,” op. cit.

С. 429. Связь между неравенством доходов и здоровьем не является универсальной: Lynch et al., “Income inequality and morality,” op. cit.; Osler, M., Prescott, E., Gronbaek, M., Christensen, U., Due, P., and Engholm, G., “Income inequality, individual income, and mortality in Danish adults: analysis of pooled data from two cohort studies,” British Medical Journal 324 (2002): 13. Очень подробный обзор материалов на эту тему см. в Lynch, J., Smith, G., Harper, S., Hillemeier, M., Ross, N., Kaplan, G., and Wolfson, M., “Is income inequality a determinant of population health?: A systematic review,” The Milbank Quarterly (2004), in press. Распределение богатства в США: Bezruchka, op. cit.

 

С. 430. На асимптотический артефакт впервые было указано в Rodgers, G. B., “Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: an international croection analysis,” Population Studies 33 (1979): 343. Этот потенциальный артефакт вносит свой вклад в феномен, но не объясняет его целиком: Wolfson, M., Kaplan, G., Lynch, J., Ross, N., and Backlund, E., “Relation between income inequality and mortality: empirical demonstration,” British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 953.

 

С. 431. Сноска. Индекс Робин Гуда: Atkinson, A., and Micklewright, J., Transformation in Eastern Europe and the Distribution of Income (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

С. 431. Концепция социального капитала: Coleman, J., Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1990). Kawachi’s work: Kawachi, I., and Kennedy, B., The Health of Nations: Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health (New York: The New Press, 2002); Kawachi, I., and Berkman, L., “Social ties and mental health,” Journal of Urban Health 78 (2001): 458. Содежит исследование пьянства в колледжах.

С. 433. Существование в качестве невидимого члена общества: Antonovsky, A., “A sociological critique of the ‘Well-Being’ movement,” Advances 10, no. 3 (1994): 6.

С. 433. Рост преступности: обладание огнестрельным оружием: Hemenway, D., Kennedy, B., Kawachi, I., and Putnam, R., “Firearm prevalence and social capital,” Annals of Epidemiology 11 (2001): 484. Неравенство доходов предсказывает уровень преступности: Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B., and Wilkinson, R., “Crime: social disorganization and relative deprivation,” Social Science and Medicine 48 (1999): 719.

С. 433. Эванс: “Interpreting and addressing inequalities in health,” op. cit.

С. 434. Здоровье в странах Восточного блока: Evans, “Interpreting and addressing inequalities in health,” op. cit. См. также Kennedy, B., Kawachi, I., and Brainerd, E., “The role of social capital in the Russian mortality crisis,” World Development 26 (1998): 2029.

С. 435. И США серьезно вооружены: Hemenway et al., op. cit. Метафора Патнама: Putnam, R., Bowling Alone (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

Здоровье в США оказывается хуже даже в сравнении с теми группами населения в Канаде, у которых наблюдается сходное неравенство доходов: Lynch, “Income inequality and mortality,” op. cit.

Неравенство доходов в США усиливается: Atkinson, A. B., Rainwater, L., and Smeeding, T. M., Income Distribution in OECD Countries: Evidence from the Luxembourg Income Study (Paris: OECD, 1995); Lindert, P. H., “When did inequality rise in Britain and America?” Journal of Income Distribution 9 (2000): 11.

С. 436. Вывод Адлер и ее коллег: Adler, N., Boyce, T., Chesney, M., Folkman, S., and Syme, S., “Socioeconomic inequalities in health: no easy solution,” Journal of the American Medical Association 269 (1993): 3140.