1. George H. W. Bushand Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Vintage, 1999), p. 312 (“Nothing will happen”); “The Gulf War,” Frontline, PBS, aired January 9, 1996 (Egypt’s president); cable, U. S. Embassy in Baghdad to Secretary of State, July 25, 1990 (“disputes”); Al-Hayat, March15, 2008.

2. Bushand Scowcroft, A World Transformed, p. 317 (“crisis du jour”); Richard Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice: A Memoir of Two Iraq Wars (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009), pp. 61–62; interview with Boyden Gray.

3. Bushand Scowcroft, A World Transformed, pp. 330, 365.

4. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, p. 148 (“classic containment”); Martin Indyk, Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009), pp. 40–43, 165 (“dual containment”); Charles Duelfer, Hide and Seek: The Search for Truth in Iraq (New York: Public Affairs, 2009), pp. 117–60.

5. Interview with James Placke; Jeffrey Meyer and Mark Califano, Good Intentions Corrupted: The Oil-for-Food Scandal and the Threat to the U. N. (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), ch. 4; Independent Inquiry Committee into the United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme, Report on the Manipulation of the Oil-for-Food Programme, United Nations, October 27, 2005.

6. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, p. 162.

7. Joseph Stanislaw and Daniel Yergin, “Oil: Reopening the Door,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 4 (1993), pp. 81–93.