Книга: Секреты лаборатории питания. Наука похудения, мифы о силе воли и пользе диет
Назад: Благодарности
Дальше: Об авторе

Примечания

ГЛАВА 1. ДИЕТЫ НЕ РАБОТАЮТ
1. Результаты краткосрочных диет обобщаются во многих статьях. См. некоторые из них: Albert Stunkard, Mavis McLaren-Hume, “The Results of Treatment for Obesity: A Review of the Literature and Report of a Series”, Archives of Internal Medicine 103, no. 1 (1959): 79-85; William Bennett, “Dietary Treatments of Obesity”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 499 (June 1987): 250-63; Jeanine Cogan, Esther Rothblum, “Outcomes of Weight-Loss Programs”, Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 118, no. 4 (1993): 385-415; M. G. Perri and P. R. Fuller, “Success and Failure in the Treatment of Obesity: Where Do We Go from Here?”, Medicine, Exercise, Nutrition and Health 4 (1995): 255-72; Alain J. Nordmann et al., “Effects of Low-Carbohydrate vs. Low-Fat Diets on Weight Loss and Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials”, Archives of Internal Medicine 166, no. 3 (February 13, 2006): 285-93, doi:10.1001/ archinte.166.3.285.
2. Для ознакомления с историей диет см.: Wayne С. Miller, “How Effective Are Traditional Dietary and Exercise Interventions for Weight Loss?”, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 31, no. 8 (August 1, 1999): 1129-34, doi: 10.1097/00005768 199908000-00008.
3. Michael L. Dansinger et al., “Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets for Weight Loss and Heart Disease Risk Reduction: A Randomized Trial”, JAMA 293, no. 1 (January 5, 2005): 43-53, doi:10.1001/jama.293.1.43.
4. По данным с сайта http://fatbet.net.
5. Paul N. Chugay and Nikolas V. Chugay, “Weight Loss Tongue Patch: An Alternative Nonsurgical Method to Aid in Weight Loss in Obese Patients”, American Journal of Cosmetic Surgery 31, no. 1 (April 1, 2014): 26-33.
6. Индекс массы тела рассчитывается по формуле m/h2, где m = масса тела (в кг), a h = рост (в м).
7. К. J. Rothman, “BMI-Related Errors in the Measurement of Obesity”, International Journal of Obesity 32, no. Suppl. 3 (August 2008): S56-9, doi:10.1038/ijo.2008.87.
8. World Health Organization, “BMI Classification”, 2012.
9. Термин «нормальная масса тела» не вполне корректен. С точки зрения статистики значения массы тела не имеют нормы, а наличие самого термина подразумевает, что все остальные варианты являются ненормальными. Я по возможности старалась не использовать это выражение в книге.
10. См., например: Thomas R. Knapp, “A Methodological Critique of the ‘Ideal Weight’ Concept”, JAMA 250, no. 4 (July 22, 1983): 506, doi:10.1001/jama.1983.03340040046030. Детальный анализ вопроса можно найти в работе: Glenn Alan Gaesser, “Big Fat Lies: The Truth about Your Weight and Your Health” (Carlsbad, CA: Giirze, 2002).
11. По данным Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, опубликованным в 1983 г.
12. Stunkard and McLaren-Hume, “The Results of Treatment for Obesity”.
13. См., например: R. R. Wing and R. W. Jeffery, “Outpatient Treatments of Obesity: A Comparison of Methodology and Clinical Results”, International Journal of Obesity 3, no. 3 (1979): 261-79.
14. Rena R. Wing and Suzanne Phelan, “Long-Term Weight Loss Maintenance”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82, no. 1 Suppl. (July 2005): 222S-225S.
15. Institute of Medicine, “The Nature and Problem of Obesity”, in “Weighing the Options: Criteria for Evaluating Weight-Management Programs”, ed. P. R. Thomas (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995), 55-58.
16. Robert W. Jeffery, Rena R. Wing, and Randall R. Mayer, “Are Smaller Weight Losses or More Achievable Weight Loss Goals Better in the Long Term for Obese Patients?”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, no. 4(1998): 641-45.
17. G. D. Foster et al., “What Is a Reasonable Weight Loss? Patients’ Expectations and Evaluations of Obesity Treatment Outcomes”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 65, no. 1 (February 1997): 79-85.
18. Представители Weight Watchers заявляют, что их диета эффективнее, чем другие, но результаты исследований, сравнивающих разные виды диет, оспаривают это. Для ознакомления с примерами см.: Marion J Franz et al., “Weight-Loss Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Weight-Loss Clinical Trials with a Minimum 1-Year
Follow-up”, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107, no. 10 (October 2007): 1755-67, doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.017; Dansinger et al., “Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets for Weight Loss and Heart Disease Risk Reduction: A Randomized Trial.”, JAMA 293, no. 1 (January 5, 2005): 43-53, doi:10.1001/ jama.293.1.43; Bradley C. Johnston et al., “Comparison of Weight Loss among Named Diet Programs in Overweight and Obese Adults”, JAMA 312, no. 9 (September 03, 2014): 923, doi:10.1001/jama.2014.10397.
19. R. Cleland et al., “Commercial Weight Loss Products and Programs: What Consumers Stand to Gain and Lose. A Public Conference on the Information Consumers Need to Evaluate Weight Loss Products and Programs”, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 41, no. 1 (January 2001): 45-70, doi:10.1080/20014091091733.
20. Там же.
21. Из передачи «The Men Who Made Us Thin», серия 1. В августе 2013 г. передача была доступна по ссылке: , com/watch? v=I-LoAm_etU.
22. 16% — показатель куда более высокий, чем упоминаемые в научной литературе, но эти цифры интервьюер использует в своем вопросе.
23. Lucy Wallis, “Do Slimming Clubs Work?”, BBC News Magazine, 2013, .
24. Weight Watchers International, Business Plan, 2001.
25. C. Ayyad and T. Andersen, “Long-Term Efficacy of Dietary Treatment of Obesity: A Systematic Review of Studies Published between 1931 and 1999”, Obesity Reviews 1, no. 2 (2000): 113-19.
26. David W. Swanson and Frank A. Dinello, “Follow-up of Patients Starved for Obesity’, Psychosomatic Medicine 32, no. 2 (March 1,1970): 209-14.
27. Для ознакомления с двумя примерами см.: D. D. Hensrud et al., “A Prospective Study of Weight Maintenance in Obese Subjects Reduced to Normal Body Weight Without Weight-Loss Training”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, no. 5 (November 1, 1994): 688-94; F. M. Kramer et al., “Long-Term Follow-up of Behavioral Treatment for Obesity: Patterns of Weight Regain among Men and Women”, International Journal of Obesity 13, no. 2 (1989): 123-36.
28. Вот почему о финансовых и других конфликтах всегда нужно упоминать в документации. Подтверждение можно найти в работе: Frank Davidoff, “Sponsorship, Authorship, and Accountability”, JAMA 286, no. 10 (September 12, 2001): 1232, doi:10.1001/jama.286.10.1232.
29. Мы обобщили результаты этих экспериментов в двух статьях: Traci Mann et al., “Medicare’s Search for Effective Obesity Treatments: Diets Are Not the Answer”, American Psychologist 62, no. 3 (April 2007): 220-33, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.220; Traci Mann, A. Janet Tomiyama, and Britt Ahlstrom, “Long-Term Effects of Dieting: Is Weight Loss Related to Health?”, Social and Personality Psychology Compass 7, no. 12 (December 2013), 861-77.
30. В подсчетах мы статистически скорректировали показатели в соответствии с числом участников каждого эксперимента. Применение данной методики стандартно для тех случаев, когда некоторые из исследований масштабны, а некоторые — очень маленькие. Таким образом, результаты небольших изысканий рассчитываются иначе, чем результаты крупных исследований.
31. Средние показатели также рассчитаны с учетом количества испытуемых.
32. Как говорил один из исследователей, «чем строже методология, тем хуже будет результат». Таким образом, если в ходе вашего эксперимента не возникает подобных сложностей, то, скорее всего, в итоге большинство испытуемых наберут ранее потерянные килограммы. Kramer et al., “Long-Term Follow-up of Behavioral Treatment for Obesity”, p. 126.
33. Для ознакомления с примером см.: М. Hanefeld et al., “Diabetes Intervention Study: Multi-Intervention Trial in Newly Diagnosed NIDDM”, Diabetes Care 14, no. 4 (1991): 308-17.19% потенциальных участников не допустили до эксперимента из-за того, что в течение шести недель перед началом исследования у них не получалось с помощью диеты контролировать диабет.
34. По данным автора, от 5 до 43%.
35. Francine Grodstein, “Three-Year Follow-up of Participants in a Commercial Weight Loss Program: Can You Keep It Off?”, Archives of Internal Medicine 156, no. 12 (June 24, 1996): 1302, doi: 10.1001/ archinte.1996.00440110068009; C. Holzapfel et al., “The Challenge of a 2-Year Follow-up after Intervention for Weight Loss in Primary Care”, International Journal of Obesity (September 13, 2013), doi:10.1038/ ijo.2013.180.
36. M. F. Hovell et al., “Long-Term Weight Loss Maintenance: Assessment of a Behavioral and Supplemented Fasting Regimen”, American Journal of Public Health 78, no. 6 (June 1, 1988): 663-66.
37. Robert L. Bowman and Janice L. DeLucia, “Accuracy of Self-Reported Weight: A Meta-Analysis”, Behavior Therapy 23, no. 4 (1992): 637-55.
38. G. D. Foster et al., “Psychological Effects of Weight Loss and Regain: A Prospective Evaluation”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, no. 4 (1996): 752-57.
39. T. A. Wadden et al., “Treatment of Obesity by Very Low Calorie Diet, Behavior Therapy, and Their Combination: A Five-Year Perspective”, International Journal of Obesity 13 Suppl 2 (January 1, 1989): 39-46.
40. Это подтвердил опрос, проведенный среди тех, кто худел с помощью диет. 60% из них через какое-то время после окончания диеты стали весить больше, чем до ее начала, несмотря на то что на момент опроса такое произошло лишь с 40% респондентов. Grodstein, “Three-Year Follow-up of Participants in a Commercial Weight Loss Program”.
41. David M. Garner and Susan C. Wooley, “Confronting the Failure of Behavioral and Dietary Treatments for Obesity”, Clinical Psychology Review 11, no. 6 (1991): 729-80, doi:10.1016/0272-7358(91)90128-h.
42. K. D. Brownell, “Obesity: Understanding and Treating a Serious, Prevalent, and Refractory Disorder”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 50, no. 6 (December 1982): 820-40.
ГЛАВА 2. ПОЧЕМУ ДИЕТЫ HE РАБОТАЮТ: БИОЛОГИЯ, СТРЕСС И ЗАПРЕТНЫЙ ПЛОД
1. И все же многие исследования доказывают, что гены могут обусловить наличие ожирения. Примеры можно найти в работе: Eleanor Wheeler et al., “Genome-Wide SNP and CNV Analysis Identifies Common and Low-Frequency Variants Associated with Severe Early-Onset Obesity”, Nature Genetics 45, no. 5 (May 2013): 513-17, doi: 10.1038/ng.2607.
2. Albert J. Stunkard et al., “An Adoption Study of Human Obesity”, New England Journal of Medicine 314, no. 4 (January 23, 1986): 193-98, doi:10.1056/NEJM198601233140401.
3. T. Bouchard et al., “Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart”, Science 250, no. 4978 (October 12, 1990): 223-28, doi: 10.1126/science.2218526.
4. Существует множество исследований массы тела близнецов, но классическим стало это: Albert J. Stunkard et al., “The Bodymass
Index of Twins Who Have Been Reared Apart”, New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990): 1483-87.
5. Karri Silventoinen et al., “Heritability of Adult Body Height: A Comparative Study of Twin Cohorts in Eight Countries”, Twin Research: The Ojficial Journal of the International Society for Twin Studies 6, no. 5 (October 2003): 399-408, doi: 10.1375/136905203770326402.
6. Krista Casazza et al., “Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity”, New England Journal of Medicine 368, no. 5 (January 30, 2013): 446-54. doi:10.1056/NEJMsal208051. В этом тщательном научном исследовании, посвященном изучению правдивости и мифичности некоторых сведений о диетах, ученые приходят к выводу, что значение массы тела человека (в отношении к его росту) в течение всей жизни остается в одном и том же диапазоне, который определяется главным образом генами, а не пищевыми привычками, которые человек приобретает в детстве. В качестве подтверждения цитировалась следующая работа: Т. D. Brisbois, А. Р. Farmer, and L. J. McCargar, “Early Markers of Adult Obesity: A Review”, Obesity Reviews 13, no. 4 (April 1, 2012): 347-67, doi:10.1111/j.l467789X.2011.00965.x.
7. Работа, в которой ученый лично обобщил результаты собственных исследований: Е. A. Sims, “Experimental Obesity, Dietary-Induced Thermogenesis, and Their Clinical Implications”, Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism 5, no. 2 (July 1976): 377-95. Замечательное реферирование аналогичных исследований можно найти в работе: Gina Kolata, “Rethinking Thin: The New Science of Weight Loss — and the Myths and Realities of Dieting” (New York: Picador, 2008).
8. Sims, “Experimental Obesity, Dietary-Induced Thermogenesis, and Their Clinical Implications”.
9. Claude Bouchard et al., “The Response to Long-Term Overfeeding in Identical Twins”, New England Journal of Medicine 322, no. 21 (May 24, 1990): 1477-82, doi:10.1056/NEJM199005243222101. См. также: A. Tremblay et al., “Overfeeding and Energy Expenditure in Humans”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56, no. 5 (November 1, 1992): 857-62.
10. Такой результат получился не потому, что разные пары близнецов выполняли неодинаковое количество упражнений. В ходе других экспериментов число упражнений было постоянным, однако в результате потребления одного и того же количества дополнительных килокалорий испытуемые набрали разное количество килограммов. James A. Levine, Norman L. Eberhardt, and Michael D.
Jensen, “Role of Nonexercise Activity Thermogenesis in Resistance to Fat Gain in Humans”, Science 283, no. 5399 (January 8,1999): 212-14, doi: 10.1126/science.283.5399.212.
11. См. хороший реферат Jeffrey M. Friedman, “A War on Obesity, Not the Obese”, Science 299, no. 5608 (February 7, 2003): 856-58, doi: 10.1126/science. 1079856.
12. Eric Stice, Kyle Burger, and Sonja Yokum, “Caloric Deprivation Increases Responsivity of Attention and Reward Brain Regions to Intake, Anticipated Intake, and Images of Palatable Foods”, Neuroimage 67 (2013): 322-30.
13. Kathleen A. Page et al., “Circulating Glucose Levels Modulate Neural Control of Desire for High-Calorie Foods in Humans”, Journal of Clinical Investigation 121, no. 10 (October 3, 2011): 4161-69, doi: 10.1172/ JCI57873.
14. Stice, Burger, and Yokum, “Caloric Deprivation Increases Responsivity of Attention and Reward Brain Regions to Intake, Anticipated Intake, and Images of Palatable Foods”.
15. Jules Hirsch, “Obesity: Matter over Mind”, Cerebrum 5, no. 1 (2003): 7-18.
16. Erin E. Kershaw and Jeffrey S. Flier, “Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ”, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 89, no. 6 (June 2004): 2548-56, doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0395.
17. Priya Sumithran et al., “Long-Term Persistence of Hormonal Adaptations to Weight Loss”, New England Journal of Medicine 365, no. 17 (October 27, 2011): 1597-1604, doi:10.1056/NEJMoall05816.
18. Там же.
19. P. A. Tataranni and E. Ravussin, “Energy Metabolism and Obesity”, in “Handbook of Obesity Treatment”, ed. T. A. Wadden and A. J. Stunkard (New York: Guilford Press, 2004), 42-72.
20. A. G. Dulloo and L. Girardier, “Adaptive Changes in Energy Expenditure during Refeeding Following Low-Calorie Intake: Evidence for a Specific Metabolic Component Favoring Fat Storage”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, no. 3 (September 1, 1990): 415-20.
21. Rudolph L. Leibel and Jules Hirsch, “Diminished Energy Requirements in Reduced-Obese Patients”, Metabolism 33, no. 2 (February 1984): 164-70, doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(84)90130-6. См. также: R. L. Leibel, M. Rosenbaum, and J. Hirsch, “Changes in Energy Expenditure Resulting from Altered Body Weight”, New England Journal of Medicine 332, no. 10 (March 9, 1995).
22. Leibel and Hirsch, “Diminished Energy Requirements in Reduced-Obese Patients”.
23. Ancel Keys et al., “The Biology of Human Starvation”, vols. 1 and 2 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1950).
24. Там же.
25. Этим коллегой был Эндрю Уорд.
26. Т. Mann and A. Ward, “Forbidden Fruit: Does Thinking about a Prohibited Food Lead to Its Consumption?”, International Journal of Eating Disorders 29, no. 3 (April 2001): 319-27; в дополнение к этому: эксперименты с участием детей показали, что юные испытуемые едят запретный продукт в течение лишь первых пяти минут. Esther Jansen et al., “From the Garden of Eden to the Land of Plenty”, Appetite 51, no. 3 (2008): 570-75.
27. Shelley Taylor, “Health Psychology”, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011).
28. Все, что я рассказываю о стрессе в этом и следующем абзацах, подробнее описывается в замечательной книге: Robert Sapolsky, “Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers”, 3rd ed. (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2004).
29. Pamela M. Peeke and George P. Chrousos, “Hypercortisolism and Obesity”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 771, no. 1 (December 1, 1995): 665-76, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995. tb44719.x; P. Bjorntorp, “Do Stress Reactions Cause Abdominal Obesity and Comorbidities?”, Obesity Reviews 2, no. 2 (May 1, 2001): 73-86, doi:10.1046/j.l467-789x. 2001.00027.x.
30. C. Greeno and R. Wing, “Stress-Induced Eating”, Psychological Bulletin 115 (1994): 444.
31. Stephanie M. Greer, Andrea N. Goldstein, and Matthew P. Walker, “The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Food Desire in the Human Brain”, Nature Communications 4 (August 6, 2013): 2259, doi: 10.1038/ ncomms3259.
32. Rachel R. Markwald et al., “Impact of Insufficient Sleep on Total Daily Energy Expenditure, Food Intake, and Weight Gain”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110, no. 14 (April 2, 2013): 5695-5700, doi:10.1073/pnas.l216951110.
33. A. Janet Tomiyama et al., “Low Calorie Dieting Increases Cortisol”, Psychosomatic Medicine 72, no. 4 (May 2010): 357-64, doi:10.1097/ PSY.0b013e3181d9523c.
34. Там же.
35. Diana Е. Pankevich et al., “Caloric Restriction Experience Reprograms Stress and Orexigenic Pathways and Promotes Binge Eating”, Journal of Neuroscience (dec63) 30, no. 48 (December 1, 2010): 16399-407, doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1955-10.2010.
36. Из высказываний Джеффри Фридмана: Kolata, Rethinking Thin, p. 125.
ГЛАВА 3. МИФИЧЕСКАЯ СИЛА ВОЛИ
1. В сорбете, как правило, содержится меньше сахара и углеводов, чем во всех остальных видах мороженого, но эта разница незначительна, поэтому он вам не помощник, если вы хотите сократить потребление сахара и углеводов.
2. К. D. Brownell and К. В. Horgen, “Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis, and What We Can Do About It” (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2004). Браунелл называет такие условия «токсичной пищевой атмосферой».
3. О том, что потребление жиров и сахаров только усиливает в человеке потребность в жирах и сахарах, и о том, как пищевая индустрия извлекает из этого выгоду, можно прочитать в работе: D. A. Kessler, “The End of Overeating: Taking Control of the Insatiable American Appetite” (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2009).
4. John P. Foreyt and G. Ken Goodrick, “Living Without Dieting” (New York: Grand Central, 1994).
5. Вопросы, наиболее часто используемые для оценки уровня самоконтроля, можно найти в работе: J. Tangney, R. Baumeister, and A. Boone, “High Self-Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success”, Journal of Personality 72, no. 2 (2004): 271-324.
6. M. Friese and W. Hofmann, “Control Me or I Will Control You: Impulses, Trait Self-Control, and the Guidance of Behavior”, Journal of Research in Personality (2009).
7. Они проделали более серьезную работу, чем мы, поэтому результаты их исследования попали в печать, а наши никогда не публиковались: Denise Т. D. de Ridder et al., “Taking Stock of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis of How Trait Self-Control Relates to a Wide Range of Behaviors”, Personality and Social Psychology Review 16, no. 1 (February 1, 2012): 76-99, doi: 10.1177/1088868311418749.
8. Brandon J. Schmeichel and Anne Zell, “Trait Self-Control Predicts Performance on Behavioral Tests of Self-Control”, Journal of Personality 75, no. 4 (August 2007): 743-55, doi:10.1111/j.l467-6494.2007.00455.x.
9. Walter Mischel and Ebbe Ebbesen, “Attention in Delay of Gratification”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16, no. 2 (1970): 329-37.
10. Для ознакомления с результатами исследования стресса и фрустрации см.: W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and Р. К. Peake, “The Nature of Adolescent Competencies Predicted by Preschool Delay of Gratification”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 4 (April 1988): 687-96. Обобщение целого ряда экспериментов по аналогичной теме представлено в работе: W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and М. Rodriguez, “Delay of Gratification in Children”, Choice over Time (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992), 147-64.
11. Индекс массы тела — это показатель, позволяющий оценить степень соответствия массы человека и его роста.
12. Tanya R. Schlam et al., “Preschoolers’ Delay of Gratification Predicts Their Body Mass 30 Years Later”, Journal of Pediatrics 162, no. 1 (January 2013): 90-93, doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.06.049. Сам факт того, что существует некая связь, прослеживающаяся и спустя 30 лет, примечателен, однако тесты с отсрочкой вознаграждения объясняют различия массы тела испытуемых лишь в 4% случаев, в остальных 96% действуют иные факторы.
13. В других исследованиях ученые использовали аналогичные тесты и также обнаружили относительно слабую связь. Как только находились наиболее характерные переменные, те исчезали. Например, в этом исследовании можно проследить сначала едва обнаруживаемую связь, потом связь еще более слабую, а потом и полное ее отсутствие. Lori A. Francis and Elizabeth J. Susman, “Self-Regulation and Rapid Weight Gain in Children from Age 3 to 12 Years”, Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 163, no. 4 (April 6, 2009): 297-302, doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2008.579; Angela L. Duckworth, Eli Tsukayama, and Andrew B. Geier, “Self-Controlled Children Stay Leaner in the Transition to Adolescence”, Appetite 54, no. 2 (2010): 304-8; Desiree M. Seeyave et al., “Ability to Delay Gratification at Age 4 Years and Risk of Overweight at Age 11 Years”, Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 163, no. 4 (April 6, 2009): 303-8, doi:10.1001/ archpediatrics.2009.12.
14. Joseph P. Redden and Kelly Haws, “Healthy Satiation: The Role of Decreasing Desire in Effective Self-Control” (October 25, 2012).
15. Nicholas Carr, “The Shallow: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains” (New York: Norton, 2011).
16. Larry D. Rosen, L. Mark Carrier, and Nancy A. Cheever, “Facebook and Texting Made Me Do It: Media-Induced Task-Switching While Studying”, Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 3 (May 2013): 948-58, doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.001.
17. Andrew Ward and Traci Mann, “Don’t Mind If I Do: Disinhibited Eating under Cognitive Load”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78, no. 4 (April 1, 2000): 753-63, doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.4.753.
18. Philip G. Zimbardo, “On the Ethics of Intervention in Human Psychological Research: With Special Reference to the Stanford Prison Experiment”, Cognition 2, no. 2 (January 1973): 243-56.
19. J. Polivy and С. P. Herman, “Effects of Alcohol on Eating Behavior: Influence of Mood and Perceived Intoxication”, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 85, no. 6 (December 1976): 601-6.
20. Эта идея была предложена профессором Клодом Стилом в работе, посвященной алкогольной миопии. Для ознакомления с исследованием см.: С. М. Steele and R. A. Josephs, “Alcohol Myopia: Its Prized and Dangerous Effects”, American Psychologist 45, no. 8 (August 1990): 921-33.
21. К тому же мы обязаны объяснять наш обман университетской комиссии и доказывать ей, что мы лжем испытуемым минимально.
22. Для ознакомления с классическим примером см.: С. Peter Herman and Deborah Mack, “Restrained and Unrestrained Eating”, Journal of Personality 43, no. 4 (December 1975): 647-60, doi: 10.1111 /j .1467-6494.1975. tb00727.x.
23. Семь исследований по данной теме можно найти в работе: Greeno and Wing, “Stress-Induced Eating”. С тех пор появилось множество трудов, освещающих этот вопрос.
24. С. Peter Herman and Janet Polivy, “Anxiety, Restraint, and Eating Behavior”, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84, no. 6 (1975): 666-72, doi: 10.1037/0021843X.84.6.666.
25. Два примера можно найти в работе: Elissa Epel et al., “Stress May Add Bite to Appetite in Women: A Laboratory Study of Stress-Induced Cortisol and Eating Behavior”, Psychoneuroendocrinology 26, no. 1 (January 2001): 37-49, doi: 10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00035-4; Summar Habhab, Jane P. Sheldon, and Roger C. Loeb, “The Relationship between Stress, Dietary Restraint, and Food Preferences in Women”, Appetite 52, no. 2 (April 2009): 437-44, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.006.
26. J. Cools, D. Е. Schotte, and R. J. McNally, “Emotional Arousal and Overeating in Restrained Eaters”, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 101, no. 2 (May 1992): 348-51.
27. A. Janet Tomiyama, Traci Mann, and Lisa Comer, “Triggers of Eating in Everyday Life”, Appetite 52, no. 1 (2009): 72-82.
28. Результаты 83 разных исследований приводятся в работе: Martin S. Hagger et al., “Ego Depletion and the Strength Model of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis”, Psychological Bulletin 136, no. 4 (July 2010): 495-525, doi:10.1037/a0019486.
29. О первом исследовании этого феномена см.: Roy F. Baumeister et al., “Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource?”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 5 (1998): 1252-65, doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252.
30. Все данные взяты из работы: Hagger et al., “Ego Depletion and the Strength Model of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis”.
31. О множестве недостатков наличия слишком большого выбора см.: Barry Schwartz, “The Paradox of Choice” (New York: Ecco, 2003).
32. S. S. Iyengar and M. R. Lepper, “When Choice Is Demotivating: Can One Desire Too Much of a Good Thing?”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79y no. 6 (December 2000): 995-1006.
33. Kathleen D. Vohs et al., “Making Choices Impairs Subsequent Self-Control: A Limited-Resource Account of Decision Making, Self-Regulation, and Active Initiative”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94, no. 5 (May 2008): 883-98, doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883.
34. Michael Lewis, “Obama’s Way”, Vanity Fair, 2012.
35. В качестве примера см.: Roy F. Baumeister and John Tierney, “Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength” (New York: Penguin Books, 2012).
36. На мой взгляд, упомянутая тема не является первостепенной в перечисляемых далее работах. В описываемых в них исследованиях участников не учили саморегулированию; вместо этого их просили следить за своей осанкой или заняться физическими упражнениями на постоянной основе, а потом доказывали, что испытуемым лучше удавался контроль в какой-нибудь совершенно иной сфере. Более того, методология этих работ довольно запутанная, нужно потратить не один час, чтобы разобраться в ней. М. Muraven, R. F. Baumeister, and D. М. Tice, “Longitudinal Improvement of Self-
Regulation Through Practice: Building Self-Control Strength Through Repeated Exercise”, Journal of Social Psychology 139, no. 4 (August 1999): 446-57, doi: 10.1080/00224549909598404; Megan Oaten and Ken Cheng, “Improved Self-Control: The Benefits of a Regular Program of Academic Study”, Basic and Applied Social Psychology 28, no. 1 (April 2006): 1-16, doi:10.1207/sl5324834basp2801_l; Megan Oaten and Ken Cheng, “Longitudinal Gains in Self-Regulation from Regular Physical Exercise”, British Journal of Health Psychology 11, Pt. 4 (November 2006): 717-33, doi: 10.1348/135910706X96481.
37. Эту поговорку я узнала от Денизы де Риддер, исследовательницы самоконтроля из Нидерландов. Поговорка встречается и в гаэльском языке.
38. Для ознакомления с примерами см.: Wilhelm Hofmann et al., “Everyday Temptations: An Experience Sampling Study of Desire, Conflict, and Self-Control”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102, no. 6 (June 2012): 1318-35, doi:10.1037/a0026545.
ГЛАВА 4. ДИЕТЫ ВРЕДНЫ
1. Информация об этом исследовании взята из книги: Keys et al., “The Biology of Human Starvation”, vols. 1 and 2.
2. Там же, с. 810. Кис отсылает нас к работе: A. W. Greely, “Three Years of Arctic Service: An Account of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881-1884 and the Attainment of the Farthest North” (New York: Scribner, 1886).
3. Keys et al., “The Biology of Human Starvation”, vols. 1 and 2, p. 811. Здесь Кис также делает отсылку к Грили.
4. Там же.
5. Человека, съевшего свои ботинки, звали Джон Франклин, и впоследствии он за это поплатился. Anthony Brandt, “The Man Who Ate His Boots: The Tragic History of the Search for the Northwest Passage” (New York: Knopf, 2010).
6. Keys et al., “The Biology of Human Starvation”, vols. 1 and 2, p. 776. Цитата взята из работы Киса, в свою очередь ссылающегося на чешскую работу, доступа к которой у меня нет (как и навыков чтения на чешском). J. Stavel, “Hlad: Prispevek К Analyse Pudu” (Bratislava: Philosophy Faculty, Comenius University, 1936).
7. По этой причине некоторые считают некорректным говорить о том, что участники эксперимента просто соблюдали диету, — скорее, они были помещены в условия близкие к тем, в которых находятся больные пищевыми расстройствами, в частности анорексией.
8. Stephen Smith, “Battles of Belief in World War II”, American Radioworks, 2013, transcript.html.
9. Исключение составляют результаты тестов, которые испытуемые активно выполняли до эксперимента. Участники хорошо справлялись с ними даже в период голодания, иными словами: последствия истощения могут быть незаметны на примере привычных действий.
10. Michael W. Green and Nicola A. Elliman, “Are Dieting-Related Cognitive Impairments a Function of Iron Status?”, British Journal of Nutrition 109, no. 1 (January 14, 2013): 184-92, doi:10.1017/S0007114512000864.
11. M. W. Green et al., “Impairment of Cognitive Performance Associated with Dieting and High Levels of Dietary Restraint”, Physiology & Behavior 55, no. 3 (March 1994): 447-52; Michael W. Green and Peter J. Rogers, “Impairments in Working Memory Associated with Spontaneous Dieting Behaviour”, Psychological Medicine 28, no. 5 (September 1, 1998): 1063-70; Jacqueline Shaw and Marika Tiggemann, “Dieting and Working Memory: Preoccupying Cognitions and the Role of the Articulatory Control Process”, British Journal of Health Psychology 9, Pt. 2 (May 2004): 175-85, doi: 10.1348/135910704773891032; Louise Vreugdenburg, Janet Bryan, and Eva Kemps, “The Effect of Self-Initiated Weight-Loss Dieting on Working Memory: The Role of Preoccupying Cognitions”, Appetite 41, no. 3 (2003): 291-300; P. J. Rogers and M. W. Green, “Dieting, Dietary Restraint and Cognitive Performance”, British Journal of Clinical Psychology 32, Pt. 1 (February 1993): 113-16.
12. Green and Rogers, “Impairments in Working Memory Associated with Spontaneous Dieting Behaviour”; Eva Kemps, Marika Tiggemann, and Kelly Marshall, “Relationship between Dieting to Lose Weight and the Functioning of the Central Executive”, Appetite 45, no. 3 (2005): 287-94; Eva Kemps and Marika Tiggemann, “Working Memory Performance and Preoccupying Thoughts in Female Dieters: Evidence for a Selective Central Executive Impairment”, British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, Pt. 3 (September 2005): 357-66, doi: 10.1348/014466505X35272; Vreugdenburg, Bryan, and Kemps, “The Effect of Self-Initiated Weight-Loss Dieting on Working Memory”.
13. Nicola Jones and Peter J. Rogers, “Preoccupation, Food, and Failure: An Investigation of Cognitive Performance Deficits in Dieters”, International Journal of Eating Disorders 33, no. 2 (March 2003): 185-92, doi: 10.1002/eat.l0124.
14. Michael W. Green and Peter J. Rogers, “Impaired Cognitive Functioning during Spontaneous Dieting”, Psychological Medicine 25, no. 05 (July 9, 1995): 1003, doi:10.1017/S0033291700037491; Kemps, Tiggemann, and Marshall, “Relationship between Dieting to Lose Weight and the Functioning of the Central Executive”; Vreugdenburg, Bryan, and Kemps, “The Effect of Self-Initiated Weight-Loss Dieting on Working Memory”.
15. Статья, в которой цитируется Ванесса Энгль: Ermine Saner, “The Fat Controllers”, Guardian, August 8, 2013.
16. Kemps, Tiggemann, and Marshall, “Relationship between Dieting to Lose Weight and the Functioning of the Central Executive”; Kemps and Tiggemann, “Working Memory Performance and Preoccupying Thoughts in Female Dieters”; Vreugdenburg, Bryan, and Kemps, “The Effect of Self-Initiated Weight-Loss Dieting on Working Memory”.
17. Jones and Rogers, “Preoccupation, Food, and Failure”.
18. Green and Rogers, “Impaired Cognitive Functioning during Spontaneous Dieting”; Kemps and Tiggemann, “Working Memory Performance and Preoccupying Thoughts in Female Dieters”; Kemps, Tiggemann, and Marshall, “Relationship between Dieting to Lose Weight and the Functioning of the Central Executive”; Vreugdenburg, Bryan, and Kemps, “The Effect of Self-Initiated Weight-Loss Dieting on Working Memory”.
19. Green and Rogers, “Impaired Cognitive Functioning during Spontaneous Dieting”.
20. Hirsch, “Obesity: Matter over Mind”.
21. Kathleen D. Vohs and Brandon J. Schmeichel, “Self-Regulation and Extended Now: Controlling the Self Alters the Subjective Experience of Time”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 217-30.
22. He исключено, что автор этого изречения — я сама. Я высказывала его на протяжении многих лет. Перерыв весь Интернет, я так и не смогла его обнаружить.
23. A. Janet Tomiyama et al., “Low Calorie Dieting Increases Cortisol”, Psychosomatic Medicine 72, no. 4 (May 2010): 357-64, doi: 10.1097/ PSY.0b013e3181d9523c. См. также: Michael W. Green, Nicola A. Elliman, and Mary J. Kretsch, “Weight Loss Strategies, Stress, and
Cognitive Function: Supervised versus Unsupervised Dieting”, Psychoneuroendocrinology 30, no. 9 (2005): 908-18.
24. Все, что я рассказываю о стрессе в этом и следующем абзацах, подробнее описывается в замечательной книге: Robert Sapolsky, “Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers”, 3rd ed.
25. A. Janet Tomiyama et al., “Does Cellular Aging Relate to Patterns of Allostasis? An Examination of Basal and Stress Reactive HPA Axis Activity and Telomere Length”, Physiology & Behavior 106, no. 1 (April 12, 2012): 40—45, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.11.016.
26. Amy Kiefer et al., “Dietary Restraint and Telomere Length in Pre-and Post-Menopausal Women”, Psychosomatic Medicine 70, no. 8 (October 1, 2008): 845-49, doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e318187d05e.
27. David Gal and Wendy Liu, “Grapes of Wrath: The Angry Effects of Self-Control”, Journal of Consumer Research 38, no. 3 (2011): 445-58.
28. Keys et al., “The Biology of Human Starvation”, vols. 1 and 2, p. 907.
29. Smith, “Battles of Belief in World War II”.
30. Thomas A. Wadden et al., “Dieting and the Development of Eating Disorders in Obese Women: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, no. 3 (September 1, 2004): 560-68; Diann M. Ackard, Jillian K. Croll, and Ann Kearney-Cooke, “Dieting Frequency among College Females: Association with Disordered Eating, Body Image, and Related Psychological Problems”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 52, no. 3 (2002): 129-36; F. M. Cachelin and P. C. Regan, “Prevalence and Correlates of Chronic Dieting in a Multi-Ethnic U.S. Community Sample”, Eating and Weight Disorders 11, no. 2 (June 1, 2006): 91-99; Scott Crow et al., “Psychosocial and Behavioral Correlates of Dieting among Overweight and Non-Overweight Adolescents”, Journal of Adolescent Health 38, no. 5 (2006): 569-74; Meghan M. Gillen, Charlotte N. Markey, and Patrick M. Markey, “An Examination of Dieting Behaviors among Adults: Links with Depression”, Eating Behaviors 13, no. 2 (2012): 88-93; T. A. Wadden, A. J. Stunkard, and J. W. Smoller, “Dieting and Depression: A Methodological Study”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 54, no. 6 (1986): 869.
31. Работа обзорного характера по теме: Rena R. Wing et al., “Mood Changes in Behavioral Weight Loss Programs”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 28, no. 3 (1984): 189-96.
32. Там же.
33. Работа обзорного характера по теме: Jordan W. Smoller, Thomas А. Wadden, and Albert J. Stunkard, “Dieting and Depression: A Critical Review”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 31, no. 4 (1987): 429-40.
34. Dacher Keltner, “Evidence for the Distinctness of Embarrassment, Shame, and Guilt: A Study of Recalled Antecedents and Facial Expressions of Emotion”, Cognition & Emotion 10, no. 2 (March 1996): 155-72, doi: 10.1080/026999396380312.
35. Ben C. Fletcher et al., “How Visual Images of Chocolate Affect the Craving and Guilt of Female Dieters”, Appetite 48, no. 2 (2007): 211-17; Gillian A. King, C. Peter Herman, and Janet Polivy, “Food Perception in Dieters and Non-Dieters”, Appetite 8, no. 2 (1987): 147-58.
36. B. Wansink, M. Cheney, and N. Chan, “Exploring Comfort Food Preferences Across Age and Gender”, Physiology & Behavior 79, nos. 4-5 (September 2003): 739-47, doi: 10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00203-8.
37. Michael Prager, “I Don’t Consider Fatness a Problem”, MichaelPrager. com/blog, 2013, .
38. June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, and Debra J Mashek, “Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior”, Annual Review of Psychology 58 (January 2007): 345-72, doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145.
39. Tara L. Gruenewald et al., “Acute Threat to the Social Self: Shame, Social Self-Esteem, and Cortisol Activity”, Psychosomatic Medicine 66, no. 6 (January 1, 2004): 915-24, doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef.
40. Sally S. Dickerson et al., “Immunological Effects of Induced Shame and Guilt”, Psychosomatic Medicine 66, no. 1 (2004): 124-31.
41. Tangney, Stuewig, and Mashek, “Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior”.
42. Eric Stice, “Risk and Maintenance Factors for Eating Pathology: A Meta-Analytic Review”, Psychological Bulletin 128, no. 5 (September 2002): 825-48.
43. Там же.
44. Eric Stice et al., “Fasting Increases Risk for Onset of Binge Eating and Bulimic Pathology: A 5-Year Prospective Study”, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 117, no. 4 (November 1, 2008): 941-46, doi: 10.1037/ a0013644.
45. Wadden et al., “Dieting and the Development of Eating Disorders in Obese Women”.
46. Donald A. Williamson et al., “Is Caloric Restriction Associated with Development of Eating-Disorder Symptoms? Results from the CALERIE
Trial”, Health Psychology 27, no. 1 Suppl. (January 2008): S32-42, doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.1. S32.
47. Stice, Burger, and Yokum, “Caloric Deprivation Increases Responsivity of Attention and Reward Brain Regions to Intake, Anticipated Intake, and Images of Palatable Foods”.
48. Gene-Jack Wang et al., “Regional Brain Metabolic Activation during Craving Elicited by Recall of Previous Drug Experiences”, Life Sciences 64, no. 9 (1999): 775-84.
49. A. E. Field et al., “Weight Cycling, Weight Gain, and Risk of Hypertension in Women”, American Journal of Epidemiology 150, no. 6 (1999): 573-79.
50. Richard L. Atkinson, “Weight Cycling”, JAMA 272, no. 15 (October 19, 1994): 1196, doi:10.1001/jama.l994.03520150064038.
51. Mette K. Simonsen et al., “Intentional Weight Loss and Mortality among Initially Healthy Men and Women”, Nutrition Reviews 66, no. 7 (July 2008): 375-86, doi:10.1111/j.l753-4887.2008.00047.x; M. E. Perez Morales, A. Jimenez Cruz, and M. Bacardi Gascon, “The Effect of Weight Loss on Mortality: A Systematic Review from 2000 to 2009”, Nutriciyn Hospitalaria 25, no. 5 (2010): 718-24, doi:S0212-1611201 0000500006 [pii].
52. M. Harrington, S. Gibson, and R. C. Cottrell, “A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Weight Loss on All-Cause Mortality Risk”, Nutrition Research Reviews 22, no. 1 (2009): 93-108, doi: 10.1017/ S0954422409990035; Victoria L. Stevens et al., “Weight Cycling and Mortality in a Large Prospective US Study”, American Journal of Epidemiology 175, no. 8 (April 15, 2012): 785-92, doi:10.1093/aje/ kwr378.
53. Kelly D. Brownell and Judith Rodin, “Medical, Metabolic, and Psychological Effects of Weight Cycling”, Archives of Internal Medicine 154, no. 12 (1994) : 1325; Reubin Andres, “Long-Term Effects of Change in Body Weight on All-Cause Mortality: A Review”, Annals of Internal Medicine 119, no. 7, Part 2 (October 1,1993): 737, doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-119-7_Part_2-199310011-00022; Perez Morales, Jimenez Cruz, and Bacardi Gascon, “The Effect of Weight Loss on Mortality: A Systematic Review from 2000 to 2009”; Simonsen et al., “Intentional Weight Loss and Mortality among Initially Healthy Men and Women”.
54. Поскольку только 6% населения болеет ожирением третьей степени и выше, у большинства респондентов диагностировалось, вероятно, ожирение первой и второй степени. Совсем необязательно, что на более запущенных стадиях ожирения стабильное значение массы тела не опасно для здоровья. Peter Rzehak et al., “Weight Change, Weight Cycling and Mortality in the ERFORT Male Cohort Study”, European Journal of Epidemiology 22, no. 10 (January 2007): 665-73, doi:10.1007/sl0654-007-9167-5.
55. Elizabeth Abbess, “Cabbage Soup Diet: What You Need to Know”, Discovery Fit and Health, 2013, wellness/diet-fitness/diets/cabbage-soup-diet2.htm.
56. “Xenical Orlistat: Information for Consumers,” 2013, . xenical.com/xenical/default.do.
ГЛАВА 5. ОЖИРЕНИЕ HE СМЕРТНЫЙ ПРИГОВОР
1. Danielle Dellorto, “Obesity Bigger Health Crisis Than Hunger”, CNN. com, 2012, .
2. Nanci Hellmich, “Obesity on Track as No. 1 Killer”, USAToday.com, March 9, 2004, .
3. Nanci Hellmich, “Obesity Threatens Life Expectancy”, USAToday.com, 2005, .
4. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2013: With Special Feature on Prescription Drugs (Hyattsville, MD, 2014), табл. 69.
5. S. Jay Olshansky et al., “A Potential Decline in Life Expectancy in the United States in the 21st Century'’, New England Journal of Medicine 352, no. 11 (March 17, 2005): 1138-45, doi:10.1056/NEJMsr043743.
6. N. Christenfeld, D. P. Phillips, and L. M. Glynn, “What’s in a Name: Mortality and the Power of Symbols”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 47, no. 3 (September 1999): 241-54.
7. Katherine M. Flegal et al., “Association of All-Cause Mortality with Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”, JAMA 309, no. 1 (January 2, 2013): 71-82, doi:10.1001/jama.2012.113905.
8. Это формальное соотношение рисков.
9. Когда в этом абзаце я говорю о том, что отношение равнялось единице, я имею в виду, что 95%-ный доверительный интервал включал в себя единицу. Аналогичным образом «отношение больше единицы» означает, что нижняя граница 95%-ного доверительного интервала больше единицы. 140 — это количество исследований, отобранных Флегал из 97 разных источников, а не число самих источников.
10. Здесь вычисляется относительный риск развития рака легких у мужчин, которые выкуривают полпачки или пачку сигарет в день, по сравнению с теми, кто никогда не курил. Neal D. Freedman et al., “Cigarette Smoking and Subsequent Risk of Lung Cancer in Men and Women: Analysis of a Prospective Cohort Study”, Lancet Oncology 9, no. 7 (2008): 649-56.
11. Katherine M. Flegal et al., “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in the Distribution of Body Mass Index among US Adults, 1999-2010”, JAMA 307, no. 5 (February 1, 2012): 491-97, doi:10.1001/jama.2012.39.
12. К. M. Flegal et al., “Excess Deaths Associated with Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity”, JAMA 293, no. 15 (2005): 1861-67, doi:10.1001/jama.293.15.1861.
13. Daphne P. Guh et al., “The Incidence of Co-Morbidities Related to Obesity and Overweight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”, BMC Public Health 9 (January 2009): 88, doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-88.
14. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2013: With Special Feature on Prescription Drugs (Hyattsville, MD, 2014), график 46.
15. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2013: With Special Feature on Prescription Drugs, график 44.
16. Carl J. Lavie, Richard V. Milani, and Hector O. Ventura, “Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: Risk Factor, Paradox, and Impact of Weight Loss”, Journal of the American College of Cardiology 53, no. 21 (May 26, 2009): 1925-32, doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2008.12.068.
17. Konstantinos Vemmos et al., “Association between Obesity and Mortality after Acute First-Ever Stroke: The Obesity-Stroke Paradox”, Stroke 42, no. 1 (January 2011): 30-6, doi: 10.1161/ STROKEAHA. 110.593434.
18. Mercedes R. Carnethon et al., “Association of Weight Status with Mortality in Adults with Incident Diabetes”, JAMA 308, no. 6 (August 8, 2012): 581-90, doi:10.1001/jama.2012.9282.
19. Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh et al., “The Obesity Paradox and Mortality Associated With Surrogates of Body Size and Muscle Mass in Patients Receiving Hemodialysis”, Mayo Clinic Proceedings 85, no. 11 (2010): 991-1001.
20. Jordan A. Guenette, Dennis Jensen, and Denis E. O’Donnell, “Respiratory Function and the Obesity Paradox”, Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 13, no. 6 (November 2010): 618-24, doi: 10.1097/ MCO.0b013e32833e3453.
21. Agustm Escalante, Roy W. Haas, and Inmaculada del Rincyn, “Paradoxical Effect of Body Mass Index on Survival in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Role of Comorbidity and Systemic Inflammation”, Archives of Internal Medicine 165, no. 14 (July 25, 2005): 1624-29, doi:10.1001/ archinte.165.14.1624.
22. Vicente F. Corrales-Medina et al., “The Obesity Paradox in Community-Acquired Bacterial Pneumonia”, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 15, no. 1 (2011): e54-e57.
23. Relin Yang et al., “Obesity and Weight Loss at Presentation of Lung Cancer Are Associated with Opposite Effects on Survival”, Journal of Surgical Research 170, no. 1 (2011): e75-e83.
24. Susan Halabi et al., “Inverse Correlation between Body Mass Index and Clinical Outcomes in Men with Advanced Castration-Recurrent Prostate Cancer”, Cancer 110, no. 7 (October 1, 2007): 1478-84, doi:10.1002/ cncr.22932.
25. Henry Oliveros and Eduardo Villamor, “Obesity and Mortality in Critically 111 Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”, Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.) 16, no. 3 (March 2008): 515-21, doi:10.1038/ oby.2007.102; Jeptha P. Curtis et al., “The Obesity Paradox: Body Mass Index and Outcomes in Patients with Heart Failure”, Archives of Internal Medicine 165, no. 1 (January 10, 2005): 55-61, doi: 10.1001/ archinte.165.1.55.
26. Oliveros and Villamor, “Obesity and Mortality in Critically 111 Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”.
27. Классическое упоминание об этом можно найти в книге: R. A. Fisher, “The Design of Experiments” (Oxford, England: Oliver & Boyd, 1935). Замечательный комментарий о методе случайной выборки есть в книге, написанной моим бывшим коллегой: Brett W. Pelham and Hart Blanton, “Conducting Research in Psychology: Measuring the Weight of Smoke”, 4th ed. (Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2011). В ней метод случайной выборки называется «самым чудесным из всех научных открытий» (с. 202).
28. Вероятно, вы подумали об упомянутых в главе 2 экспериментах, в которых заключенные и добровольцы должны были на время потолстеть. Они не подходят для этого случая, поскольку в них не предусмотрено наличие контрольных групп. Sims, “Experimental Obesity, Dietary-Induced Thermogenesis, and Their Clinical Implications”.
29. Mann et al., “Medicare’s Search for Effective Obesity Treatments: Diets Are Not the Answer”.
30. Mann, Tomiyama, and Ahlstrom, “Long-Term Effects of Dieting”.
31. Look AHEAD Research Group, “Cardiovascular Effects of Intensive Lifestyle Intervention in Type 2 Diabetes”, New England Journal of Medicine 369, no. 2 (June 24,2013): 145-54, doi:10.1056/NEJMoal212914.
32. Определения появляются в работе: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, “Data & Safety Monitoring Plans”, Research and Funding for Scientists, 2013, . gov/research-funding/process/human-subjects-research/data-safety-monitoring-plans/Pages/data-and-safety-monitoring-plans.aspx. Для ознакомления с исследованием, которое проводили ученые из Look AHEAD (см. предыдущее примечание) и которое было закрыто по причине «бесполезности», см.: Look AHEAD Protocol Review Committee, “Protocol: Action for Health in Diabetes: Look AHEAD Clinical Trial, 10th Revision”, 2012, https://www.lookaheadtrial.org/ public/LookAHEADProtocol.pdf, p. 38.
33. “Weight Loss Does Not Lower Heart Disease Risk from Type 2 Diabetes”, пресс-релиз, Национальные институты здравоохранения США, 2012, http://www.nih.gov/news/health/oct2012/ niddk-19.htm.
34. J. Bruce Redmon et al., “Effect of the Look AHEAD Study Intervention on Medication Use and Related Cost to Treat Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes”, Diabetes Care 33, no. 6 (June 1, 2010): 1153-58, doi:10.2337/dc09-2090.
35. Сюда включены все исследования смертности, обобщенные Кэтрин Флегал.
36. Если вы в исследованиях используете метод случайной выборки, то вам не нужно волноваться о различиях между полными и стройными людьми, потому что благодаря случайной выборке состав группы оказывается однородным практически по всем аспектам. У участников обнаруживается сходство даже тех характеристик, о которых вы и не думали. И это принципиально важно. Как профессиональный ученый могу со всей убежденностью сказать, что в мире есть бесконечное множество нюансов, о которых я никогда не задумывалась.
37. J. J. Varo et al., “Distribution and Determinants of Sedentary Lifestyles in the European Union”, International Journal of Epidemiology 32, no. 1 (February 1, 2003): 138-46, doi:10.1093/ije/dygll6.
38. Там же.
39. Casazza et al., “Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity”.
40. Phillipa Caudwell et al., “Exercise Alone Is Not Enough: Weight Loss Also Needs a Healthy (Mediterranean) Diet?”, Public Health Nutrition 12, no. 9A (September 1, 2009): 1663-66, doi: 10.1017/ S1368980009990528.
41. Scott M. Grundy et al., “Clinical Management of Metabolic Syndrome: Report of the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute / American Diabetes Association Conference on Scientific Issues Related to Management”, Circulation 109, no. 4 (February 3, 2004): 551-56, doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000112379.88385.67.
42. D. E. Thomas, E. J. Elliott, and G. A. Naughton, “Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus”, Evidence-Based Nursing 10, no. 1 (2007): 11.
43. Balraj S. Heran et al., “Exercise-Based Cardiac Rehabilitation for Coronary Heart Disease”, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews no. 7 (January 2011): CD001800, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001800.pub2.
44. Paul D. Thompson et al., “Exercise and Physical Activity in the Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology (Subcommittee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention) and the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Subcommittee on Physical Activity)”, Circulation 107, no. 24 (June 24, 2003): 3109-16, doi:10.1161/01. CIR.0000075572.40158.77.
45. Sean Carroll and Mike Dudfield, “What Is the Relationship between Exercise and Metabolic Abnormalities?”, Sports Medicine 34, no. 6 (2004): 371-418, doi: 10.2165/00007256-200434060-00004.
46. Martha L. Slattery and John D. Potter, “Physical Activity and Colon Cancer: Confounding or Interaction?”, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 34, no. 6 (June 2002): 913-19.
47. Rosalind A. Breslow et al., “Long-Term Recreational Physical Activity and Breast Cancer in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study”, Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 10, no. 7 (July 1, 2001): 805-8.
48. Casazza et al., “Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity”; Breslow et al., “Long-Term Recreational Physical Activity and Breast Cancer in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I
Epidemiologic Follow-up Study”; Grundy et al., “Clinical Management of Metabolic Syndrome”; Thomas, Elliott, and Naughton, “Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus”; Caudwell et al., “Exercise Alone Is Not Enough”.
49. S. N. Blair and T. S. Church, “The Fitness, Obesity, and Health Equation: Is Physical Activity the Common Denominator?”, JAMA 292, no. 10 (2004): 1232-34, doi:10.1001/jama.292.10.1232; S. N. Blair and S. Brodney, “Effects of Physical Inactivity and Obesity on Morbidity and Mortality: Current Evidence and Research Issues”, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 31, no. 11 Suppl. (1999): S646-62; M. Fogelholm, “Physical Activity, Fitness and Fatness: Relations to Mortality, Morbidity and Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review”, Obesity Reviews 11, no. 3 (2010): 202-21, doi:10.1111/j.l467-789X.2009.00653.x; M. Wei et al., “Relationship between Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Mortality in Normal-Weight, Overweight, and Obese Men”, JAMA 282, no. 16 (1999): 1547-53.
50. Paul McAuley et al., “Fitness and Fatness as Mortality Predictors in Healthy Older Men: The Veterans Exercise Testing Study”, Journals of Gerontology: Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 64, no. 6 (June 1, 2009): 695-99, doi:10.1093/gerona/gln039.
51. Caitlin Mason et al., “History of Weight Cycling Does Not Impede Future Weight Loss or Metabolic Improvements in Postmenopausal Women”, Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 62, no. 1 (January 1, 2013): 127-36, doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2012.06.012.
52. Nancy E. Adler and Joan M. Ostrove, “Socioeconomic Status and Health: What We Know and What We Don’t”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896, no. 1 (December 6, 1999): 3-15, doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08101.x.
53. M. G. Marmot, M. J. Shipley, and G. Rose, “Inequalities in Death — Specific Explanations of a General Pattern?”, Lancet 1, no. 8384 (May 5, 1984): 1003-1006.
54. Adler and Ostrove, “Socioeconomic Status and Health”.
55. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Healthy People 2020 (Washington, DC, 2010).
56. Для ознакомления с отличным обзором по теме см.: Karen А. Matthews and Linda С. Gallo, “Psychological Perspectives on Pathways Linking Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health”, Annual Review of Psychology 62 (January 2011): 501-30, doi:10.1146/annurev. psych.031809.130711.
57. Bruce S. McEwen and Teresa Seeman, “Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress: Elaborating and Testing the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic Load”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896, no. 1 (December 6, 1999): 30-47, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999. tb08103.x.
58. K. E. Pickett and M. Pearl, “Multilevel Analyses of Neighbourhood Socioeconomic Context and Health Outcomes: A Critical Review”, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 55, no. 2 (February 2001): 111-22.
59. Youfa Wang and May A. Beydoun, “The Obesity Epidemic in the United States — Gender, Age, Socioeconomic, Racial/Ethnic, and Geographic Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis”, Epidemiologic Reviews 29, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 6-28, doi:10.1093/ epirev/mxm007; J. Sobal and A. J. Stunkard, “Socioeconomic Status and Obesity: A Review of the Literature”, Psychological Bulletin 105, no. 2 (1989): 260-75.
60. Jacob J. Feldman et al., “National Trends in Educational Differentials in Mortality”, American Journal of Epidemiology 129, no. 5 (May 1, 1989): 919-33; M. G. Marmot et al., “Health Inequalities among British Civil Servants: The Whitehall II Study”, Lancet 337, no. 8754 (June 8, 1991): 1387-93; Marmot, Shipley, and Rose, “Inequalities in Death — Specific Explanations of a General Pattern?”; H. Bosma et al., “Low Control Beliefs, Classical Coronary Risk Factors, and Socio-Economic Differences in Heart Disease in Older Persons”, Social Science & Medicine 60, no. 4 (2005): 737-45.
61. National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “What Is Metabolic Syndrome?”, Health Information for the Public, accessed November 5, 2013, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/ health-topics/topics/ms/.
62. Thais Coutinho et al., “Combining Body Mass Index with Measures of Central Obesity in the Assessment of Mortality in Subjects with Coronary Disease: Role of‘Normal Weight Central Obesity’”, Journal of the American College of Cardiology 61, no. 5 (February 5, 2013): 553-60, doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.10.035; Thais Coutinho et al., “Central Obesity and Survival in Subjects with Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review of the Literature and Collaborative Analysis with Individual Subject Data”, Journal of the American College of Cardiology 57, no. 19 (May 10, 2011): 1877-86, doi:10.1016/j. jacc.2010.11.058; Halfdan Petursson et al., “Body Configuration as a Predictor of Mortality: Comparison of Five Anthropometric Measures in a 12 Year Follow-up of the Norwegian HUNT 2 Study”, ed. Stefan Kiechl, PloS One 6, no. 10 (January 2011): e26621, doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0026621.
63. Coutinho et al., “Central Obesity and Survival in Subjects with Coronary Artery Disease”.
64. Elizabeth A. Pascoe and Laura Smart Richman, “Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review”, Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 4 (2009): 531-54.
65. R. M. Puhl and C. A. Heuer, “The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 17, no. 5 (2009): 941-64, doi:10.1038/oby.2008.636.
66. Drew A. Anderson and Thomas A. Wadden, “Bariatric Surgery Patients’ Views of Their Physicians’ Weight-Related Attitudes and Practices”, Obesity Research 12, no. 10 (October 2004): 1587-95, doi:10.1038/ oby.2004.198.
67. Rebecca M. Puhl and Kelly D. Brownell, “Confronting and Coping with Weight Stigma: An Investigation of Overweight and Obese Adults”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 14, no. 10 (October 2006): 1802-15, doi:10.1038/oby.2006.208.
68. N. K. Amy et al., “Barriers to Routine Gynecological Cancer Screening for White and African-American Obese Women”, International Journal of Obesity 30, no. 1 (January 4, 2006): 147-55, doi:10.1038/ sj.ijo.0803105.
69. G. D. Foster et al., “Primary Care Physicians’ Attitudes about Obesity and Its Treatment”, Obesity Research 11, no. 10 (2003): 1168-77, doi:10.1038/oby.2003.161.
70. M. B. Schwartz et al., “Weight Bias among Health Professionals Specializing in Obesity”, Obesity Research 11, no. 9 (2003): 1033-39.
71. M. R. Hebl and J. Xu, “Weighing the Care: Physicians’ Reactions to the Size of a Patient”, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 25, no. 8 (August 2001): 1246-52, doi: 10.1038/ sj.ijo.0801681.
72. Kimberly A. Gudzune et al., “Physicians Build Less Rapport with Obese Patients”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 21, no. 10 (March 20, 2013): 2146-52, doi:10.1002/oby.20384.
73. David Р. Miller et al., “Are Medical Students Aware of Their Anti-Obesity Bias?”, Academic Medicine 88, no. 7 (July 2013): 978-82, doi:10.1097/ ACM.0b013e318294f817; Sean M. Phelan et al., “Implicit and Explicit Weight Bias in a National Sample of 4,732 Medical Students: The Medical Student CHANGES Study”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) (2013), doi:10.1002/oby.20687.
74. Kimberly A. Gudzune et al., “Doctor Shopping by Overweight and Obese Patients Is Associated with Increased Healthcare Utilization”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 21, no. 7 (July 2013): 1328-34, doi:10.1002/ oby.20189.
75. T. Ostbye et al., “Associations between Obesity and Receipt of Screening Mammography, Papanicolaou Tests, and Influenza Vaccination: Results from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the Asset and Health Dynamics among the Oldest Old (AHEAD) Study”, American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 9 (2005): 1623-30, doi: 10.2105/ AJPH.2004.047803; С. C. Wee et al., “Screening for Cervical and Breast Cancer: Is Obesity an Unrecognized Barrier to Preventive Care?”, Annals of Internal Medicine 132, no. 9 (2000): 697-704.
76. Ostbye et al., “Associations between Obesity and Receipt of Screening Mammography, Papanicolaou Tests, and Influenza Vaccination”; Wee et al., “Screening for Cervical and Breast Cancer”.
77. Jeanne M. Ferrante et al., “Colorectal Cancer Screening among Obese Versus Non-Obese Patients in Primary Care Practices”, Cancer Detection and Prevention 30, no. 5 (2006): 459-65; Allison B. Rosen and Eric C. Schneider, “Colorectal Cancer Screening Disparities Related to Obesity and Gender”, Journal of General Internal Medicine 19, no. 4 (April 2004): 332-38, doi:10.1111/j.l525-1497.2004.30339.x.
78. Ostbye et al., “Associations between Obesity and Receipt of Screening Mammography, Papanicolaou Tests, and Influenza Vaccination”.
79. Pascoe and Richman, “Perceived Discrimination and Health”.
80. B. Major, D. Eliezer, and H. Rieck, “The Psychological Weight of Weight Stigma”, Social Psychological and Personality Science 3, no. 6 (January 19, 2012): 651-58, doi: 10.1177/1948550611434400. Cm. также: Janet Tomiyama et al., “Associations of Weight Stigma with Cortisol and Oxidative Stress Independent of Adiposity”, Health Psychology 33, no. 8 (August 2014): 862-67, doi:10.1037/hea0000107. Другой пример можно найти в работе: Natasha A. Schvey, Rebecca M. Puhl, and Kelly D. Brownell, “The Stress of Stigma: Exploring the
Effect of Weight Stigma on Cortisol Reactivity”, Psychosomatic Medicine (2014): PSY-0000000000000031.
81. Puhl and Brownell, “Confronting and Coping with Weight Stigma”.
82. Jenny H. Ledikwe et al., “Dietary Energy Density Is Associated with Energy Intake and Weight Status in US Adults”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83, no. 6 (June 2006): 1362-68.
83. Lawrence de Koning et al., “Sugar-Sweetened and Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Men”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 93, no. 6 (June 1, 2011): 1321-27, doi: 10.3945/ajcn.l 10.007922. Koning.
84. Ankur Vyas et al., “Diet Drink Consumption and the Risk of Cardiovascular Events: A Report from the Women’s Health Initiative”, Journal of the American College of Cardiology 63, no. 12 (April 1, 2014): A1290, doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(14)61290-0. vyas.
85. Jotham Suez et al., “Artificial Sweeteners Induce Glucose Intolerance by Altering the Gut Microbiota”, Nature (September 17, 2014), doi:10.1038/naturel3793. Suez.
86. A. S. Levy and A. W. Heaton, “Weight Control Practices of US Adults Trying to Lose Weight”, Annals of Internal Medicine 119, no. 7 Part 2 (1993): 661-66; Edward C. Weiss et al., “Weight-Control Practices among U.S. Adults, 2001-2002”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 31, no. 1 (2006): 18-24.
87. Lisa L. Ioannides-Demos et al., “Safety of Drug Therapies Used for Weight Loss and Treatment of Obesity”, Drug Safety 29, no. 4 (2006): 277-302, doi: 10.2165/00002018-200629040-00001.
88. M. A. Whisman, “Loneliness and the Metabolic Syndrome in a Population-Based Sample of Middle-Aged and Older Adults”, Health Psychology 29, no. 5 (2010): 550-54, doi:10.1037/a0020760.
89. J. Holt-Lunstad, T. B. Smith, and J. B. Layton, “Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-Analytic Review”, PLoS Med 7, no. 7 (2010): el000316,doi:10.1371/journal.pmed. 1000316.
90. Сведения взяты из дополнительных материалов к статье. Вебадреса, по которому можно выйти на эти данные, не существует, но их можно найти в основной статье: Flegal et al., “Association of All-Cause Mortality with Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories”.
91. Исследователям нужно было учитывать как минимум два из трех компонентов СЭС (например, уровни образования и дохода), если судить по работе: Р. A. Braveman et al., “Socioeconomic Status in
Health Research: One Size Does Not Fit All”, JAMA 294, no. 22 (2005): 2879-88, doi:10.1001/jama.294.22.2879.
92. Это справедливо для белокожих людей, которые никогда не курили. Eric A. Finkelstein et al., “Individual and Aggregate Years-of-Life-Lost Associated with Overweight and Obesity”, Obesity 18, no. 2 (February 2010): 333-39, doi:10.1038/oby.2009.253.
93. Там же.
94. Christenfeld, Phillips, and Glynn, “What’s in a Name”.
95. P. Campos et al., “The Epidemiology of Overweight and Obesity: Public Health Crisis or Moral Panic?”, International Journal of Epidemiology 35, no. 1 (2006): 55-60, doi:10.1093/ije/dyi254.
96. Davidoff, “Sponsorship, Authorship, and Accountability”.
97. Olshansky et al., “A Potential Decline in Life Expectancy in the United States in the 21st Century”.
98. W. Wayt Gibbs, “Obesity: An Overblown Epidemic?”, Scientific American 292, no. 6 (June 2005): 70-77, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0605-70.
99. Olshansky et al., “A Potential Decline in Life Expectancy in the United States in the 21st Century”; David Allison, “Disclosure of Financial Information”, New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, . nejm.org/doi/suppl/10.1056/NEJMsr043743/suppl_file/1138sal.pdf.
100. Flegal et al., “Association of All-Cause Mortality with Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories”.
ГЛАВА 6. НЕСКОЛЬКО УРОКОВ ОТ ПОДЖАРОЙ СВИНЬИ
1. По просьбе этого человека в книге его имя изменено.
2. Walter Mischel, “From Good Intentions to Willpower”, in “The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior”, ed. Peter Gollwitzer and John Bargh (New York: Guilford Press, 1996), 197-218.
3. Об этой стратегии (и о многих других) мы писали в работе, посвященной обзору стратегий самоконтроля: Traci Mann, Denise de Ridder, and Kentaro Fujita, “Self-Regulation of Health Behavior: Social Psychological Approaches to Goal Setting and Goal Striving”, Health Psychology 32, no. 5 (May 2013): 487-98, doi:10.1037/a0028533.
4. Lisa R. Young and Marion Nestle, “The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the US Obesity Epidemic”, American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 2 (February 1, 2002): 246-49.
5. Там же.
6. Nancy Rivera, “Ice Cream Firm Turns 40: Baskin-Robbins Starts Program to Revitalize”, Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1985.
7. Young and Nestle, “The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the US Obesity Epidemic”.
8. Там же.
9. В. Wansink and C. S. Wansink, “The Largest Last Supper: Depictions of Food Portions and Plate Size Increased Over the Millennium”, International Journal of Obesity (2005) 34, no. 5 (May 2010): 943 -4, doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.37.
10. Там же.
11. Сведения обзорного характера можно найти в работе: Brian Wansink, “Environmental Factors That Increase the Food Intake and Consumption Volume of Unknowing Consumers”, Annual Review of Nutrition 24 (January 2004): 455-79, doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132140. См. также: Carmen Piernas and Barry M. Popkin, “Increased Portion Sizes from Energy-Dense Foods Affect Total Energy Intake at Eating Occasions in US Children and Adolescents: Patterns and Trends by Age Group and Sociodemographic Characteristics, 1977-2006”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94, no. 5 (November 1, 2011): 1324-32, doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.008466; David A. Levitsky and Trisha Youn, “The More Food Young Adults Are Served, the More They Overeat”, Journal of Nutrition 134, no. 10 (October 1, 2004): 2546-49.
12. Brian Wansink, “Can Package Size Accelerate Usage Volume?”, Journal of Marketing 60, no. 3 (1996): 1-14, doi: 10.2307/1251838.
13. Brian Wansink, Koert van Ittersum, and James E. Painter, “Ice Cream Illusions: Bowls, Spoons, and Self-Served Portion Sizes”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 31, no. 3 (2006): 240-43.
14. Ellen van Kleef, Christos Kawouris, and Hans С. M. van Trijp, “The Unit Size Effect of Indulgent Food: How Eating Smaller Sized Items Signals Impulsivity and Makes Consumers Eat Less”, Psychology & Health 29, no. 9 (September 2014): 1081-1103, doi: 10.1080/08870 446.2014.909426.
15. Brian Wansink, James E. Painter, and Jill North, “Bottomless Bowls: Why Visual Cues of Portion Size May Influence Intake”, Obesity Research 13, no. 1 (January 2005): 93-100, doi:10.1038/oby.2005.12.
16. Там же.
17. В. Wansink and К. Van Ittersum, “Illusive Consumption Behavior and the DelBoeuf Illusion: Are the Eyes Really Bigger than the Stomach?”, Annual Review of Nutrition 24 (2004): 455-79.
18. Wansink, Painter, and North, “Bottomless Bowls”.
19. Piernas and Popkin, “Increased Portion Sizes from Energy-Dense Foods Affect Total Energy Intake at Eating Occasions in US Children and Adolescents”.
20. Frank McIntyre, “U.S. Companies Shrink Packages as Food Prices Rise”, Daily Finance, 2011, http://www.dailyfinance.com/2011/04/04/u-s-companies-shrink-packages-as-food-prices-rise/.
21. “Saving on Toilet Paper” , OccupiedLife.com, 2011, http://occupiedlife. com/saving-on-toilet-paper/; Peggy Wang, “46 Penny-Pinching Ways to Save a Lot of Money This Year,” Buzzfeed.com, 2013, http://www.buzzfeed. com/peggy/46-penny-pinching-ways-to-save-a-lot-of-money-this.
22. Keith Hawton et al., “Long Term Effect of Reduced Pack Sizes of Paracetamol on Poisoning Deaths and Liver Transplant Activity in England and Wales: Interrupted Time Series Analyses”, BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 346 (January 2013): f403; K. Hawton, “Effects of Legislation Restricting Pack Sizes of Paracetamol and Salicylate on Self Poisoning in the United Kingdom: Before and After Study”, BMJ 322, no. 7296 (May 19, 2001): 1203, doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7296.1203.
23. Josje Maas et al., “Do Distant Foods Decrease Intake? The Effect of Food Accessibility on Consumption”, Psychology & Health 27, Suppl. 2 (October 2012): 59-73, doi: 10.1080/08870446.2011.565341. См. также: Gregory J. Privitera and Far is M. Zuraikat, “Proximity of Foods in a Competitive Food Environment Influences Consumption of a Low Calorie and a High Calorie Food”, Appetite 76 (May 2014): 175-79, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.02.004.
24. Maas et al., “Do Distant Foods Decrease Intake?”.
25. Paul Rozin et al., “Nudge to Nobesity I: Minor Changes in Accessibility Decrease Food Intake”, Judgment and Decision Making 6, no. 4 (2011): 323-32.
26. Насколько я знаю, никто не проводил подобный эксперимент, поэтому это только предположение.
27. См., например: Frances Martel, “Jon Stewart Rails Against Bloomberg’s ‘Draconian’ Soda Ban with Piles of Gross ‘Legal’ Food”, Mediaite. com, 2012, .
28. Cecilia Kang, “Google Crunches Data on Munching in Office”, Washington Post, September 1, 2013. См. также: В. Wansink, J. E. Painter, and Y. K. Lee, “The Office Candy Dish: Proximity’s Influence on Estimated and Actual Consumption”, International Journal of Obesity 30, no. 5 (May 17, 2006): 871-75, doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803217; James E. Painter, Brian Wansink, and Julie B. Hieggelke, “How Visibility and Convenience Influence Candy Consumption”, Appetite 38, no. 3 (June 2002): 237-38, doi:10.1006/appe.2002.0485.
29. Carol E. Cornell, Judith Rodin, and Harvey Weingarten, “Stimulus-Induced Eating When Satiated”, Physiology & Behavior 45, no. 4 (1989): 695-704.
30. Если хотите вдохновиться на подобное, то существует видео, в котором повар и писательница Тамар Адлер за один раз моет и поджаривает огромное количество овощей, а потом кладет их в банки и убирает в холодильник, чтобы в течение недели съесть в сыром виде или пустить в готовку (лучше увидеть это своими глазами). Tamar Е. Adler, “How to Stride Ahead: Part 2”,Tamareadler. com, 2011, .
31. Имеются в виду Джо Редден, Зата Викерс, Марла Рейке и Элтон Майкерези, а также аспиранты: Стефания Элсберндт и Никки Миллер.
32. Подробнее об этих экспериментах см.: Joseph Р. Redden et al., “The Effect of Juxtaposition on the Intake of Healthy Foods” (n.d.).
ГЛАВА 7. КАК ЗАСТАВИТЬ ДРУЗЕЙ ИГНОРИРОВАТЬ ПЕЧЕНЬЕ
1. Solomon Е. Asch, “Studies of Independence and Conformity:
I. A Minority of One against a Unanimous Majority”, Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 70, no. 9 (1956) 1-70.
2. Эксперимент воспроизводился более 100 раз в 17 разных странах. Подробнее см.: Rod Bond and Peter В. Smith, “Culture and Conformity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) Line Judgment Task”, Psychological Bulletin 119, no. 1 (1996): 111-37.
3. M. Sherif, “The Psychology of Social Norms” (Oxford, England: Harper, 1936).
4. Paul Rozin, “The Integration of Biological, Social, Cultural and Psychological Influences on Food Choice”, in “The Psychology of Food
Choice”, ed. Richard Shepherd and Monique Raats (Oxfordshire, England: CABI, 2006), 19^10.
5. John M. de Castro and E. Marie Brewer, “The Amount Eaten in Meals by Humans Is a Power Function of the Number of People Present”, Physiology & Behavior 51, no. 1 (1992): 121-25.
6. Там же; A. Ward and T. Mann, “Don’t Mind If I Do: Disinhibited Eating Under Cognitive Load”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78, no. 4 (April 2000): 753-63.
7. Vanessa I. Clendenen, C. Peter Herman, and Janet Polivy, “Social Facilitation of Eating among Friends and Strangers”, Appetite 23, no. 1 (1994): 1-13; Sarah-Jeanne Salvy et al., “Effects of Social Influence on Eating in Couples, Friends and Strangers”, Appetite 49, no. 1 (July 2007): 92-99, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2006.12.004.
8. De Castro and Brewer, “The Amount Eaten in Meals by Humans Is a Power Function of the Number of People Present”.
9. Maryhope Howland, Jeffrey M. Hunger, and Traci Mann, “Friends Don’t Let Friends Eat Cookies: Effects of Restrictive Eating Norms on Consumption among Friends”, Appetite 59, no. 2 (October 2012): 505-9, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2012.06.020.
10. Leon Festinger, “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes”, Human Relations 7, no. 2 (1954): 117-40.
11. Noah J. Goldstein, Robert B. Cialdini, and Vladas Griskevicius, “A Room with a Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in Hotels”, Journal of Consumer Research 35, no. 3 (October 3, 2008): 472-82, doi: 10.1086/586910.
12. Значимы и другие факторы, например выгодность или необходимость прикладывать усилия, но даже с их учетом можно выявить очевидные различия между странами. Eric J. Johnson and Daniel Goldstein, “Do Defaults Save Lives?”, Science 302, no. 5649 (November 21, 2003): 1338-39, doi:10.1126/science.l091721.
13. Ervin Staub, “Instigation to Goodness: The Role of Social Norms and Interpersonal Influence”, Journal of Social Issues 28, no. 3 (July 1972): 131-50, doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1972.tb00036.x.
14. Howland, Hunger, and Mann, “Friends Don’t Let Friends Eat Cookies”. Другие исследования также демонстрируют воздействие подразумеваемых норм на питание. См., например: Eric Robinson, Helen Benwell, and Suzanne Higgs, “Food Intake Norms Increase and Decrease Snack Food Intake in a Remote Confederate Study”, Appetite 65 (2013): 20-24. Обзор можно найти в работе: Eric Robinson et al., “What
Everyone Else Is Eating: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Informational Eating Norms on Eating Behavior”, Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 114, no. 3 (2013): 414-29.
15. F. Marijn Stok et al., “Minority Talks: The Influence of Descriptive Social Norms on Fruit Intake”, Psychology & Health 27, no. 8 (January 2012): 956-70, doi: 10.1080/08870446.2011.635303.
16. Clayton Neighbors, Mary E. Larimer, and Melissa A. Lewis, “Targeting Misperceptions of Descriptive Drinking Norms: Efficacy of a Computer-Delivered Personalized Normative Feedback Intervention”, Jour nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72, no. 3 (June 2004): 434-47, doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.434.
17. Elizabeth M. Condon, Mary Kay Crepinsek, and Mary Kay Fox, “School Meals: Types of Foods Offered to and Consumed by Children at Lunch and Breakfast”, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109, no. 2 (2009): S67-S78.
18. Я работала над этим проектом вместе с моими коллегами из Миннесотского университета, в число которых входили Марла Рейке, Зата Викерс, Джо Редден и Элтон Майкерези. Marla Reicks et al., “Photographs in Lunch Tray Compartments and Vegetable Consumption among Children in Elementary School Cafeterias”, JAMA 307, no. 8 (February 22, 2012): 784-85, doi:10.1001/jama.2012.170.
19. Там же.
20. Классическим открытием когнитивной психологии является то, что испытуемые не могут запомнить расположение элементов на монетке. Raymond S. Nickerson and Marilyn Jager Adams, “Long-Term Memory for a Common Object”, Cognitive Psychology 11, no. 3 (1979): 287-307.
21. Heather Barry Kappes and Patrick E. Shrout, “When Goal Sharing Produces Support That Is Not Caring”, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 37, no. 5 (May 1, 2011): 662-73, doi:10.1177/0146167211399926.
22. Mary Ann Parris Stephens et al., “Spouses’ Attempts to Regulate Day-to-Day Dietary Adherence among Patients with Type 2 Diabetes”, Health Psychology 32, no. 10 (October 2013): 1029-37, doi:10.1037/a0030018; J. S. Tucker and J. S. Mueller, “Spouses’ Social Control of Health Behaviors: Use and Effectiveness of Specific Strategies”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26, no. 9 (November 1, 2000): 1120-30, doi: 10.1177/01461672002611008.
23. Там же.
24. Maryhope Howland and Jeffry A. Simpson, “Getting in Under the Radar. A Dyadic View of Invisible Support”, Psychological Science 21, no. 12 (December 1, 2010): 1878-85, doi: 10.1177/0956797610388817.
25. Marci E. J. Gleason et al., “Daily Supportive Equity in Close Relationships”, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 29, no. 8 (August 1, 2003): 1036-45, doi: 10.1177/0146167203253473.
ГЛАВА 8. HE НАЗЫВАЙТЕ ЯБЛОКО ПОЛЕЗНЫМ
1. Классической работой в области социальной психологии по данной теме является: Lee Ross and Richard E. Nisbett, “The Person and the Situation” (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991). На той же концептуальной основе строится когнитивно-поведенческая терапия, о которой см.: David D. Burns, “Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy”, rev. ed. (New York: William Morrow Paperbacks, 1999).
2. Brian Wansink, Koert van Ittersum, and James E. Painter, “How Descriptive Food Names Bias Sensory Perceptions in Restaurants”, Food Quality and Preference 16, no. 5 (2005): 393-400.
3. Alia J. Crum et al., “Mind Over Milkshakes: Mindsets, Not Just Nutrients, Determine Ghrelin Response”, Health Psychology 30, no. 4 (2011): 424-29.
4. Там же.
5. Представлена информация о калорийности одного куска, т. е. одной шестой части пирога. “Bakers Square Restaurant and Bakery Nutritional Information”, Bakerssquare.com, ссылка . bakerssquare.com/files/nutrition.pdf была доступна 7 февраля 2014 г.
6. H.R. 3590,111th Congress: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Public Law No. 111-148, , 2010.
7. Kamila M. Kiszko et al., “The Influence of Calorie Labeling on Food Orders and Consumption: A Review of the Literature”, Journal of Community Health (April 24, 2014), doi:10.1007/sl0900-014-9876-0. См. также табл. 2 в работе: J. Krieger and В. E. Saelens, “Impact of Menu Labeling on Consumer Behavior: A 2008-2012 Update” (Minneapolis, MN, 2013).
8. Brian Elbel et al., “Calorie Labeling, Fast Food Purchasing and Restaurant Visits”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) (October 17, 2013), doi:10.1002/oby.20550.
9. Sarah Campos, Juliana Doxey, and David Hammond, “Nutrition Labels on Pre-Packaged Foods: A Systematic Review”, Public Health Nutrition 14, по. 8 (2011): 1496; Klaus G. Grunert and Josephine M. Wills, “A Review of European Research on Consumer Response to Nutrition Information on Food Labels”, Journal of Public Health 15, no. 5 (April 14, 2007): 385-99, doi:10.1007/sl0389-007-0101-9; Gill Cowburn and Lynn Stockley, “Consumer Understanding and Use of Nutrition Labelling: A Systematic Review”, Public Health Nutrition 8, no. 1 (February 2005): 21-28.
10. Grunert and Wills, “A Review of European Research on Consumer Response to Nutrition Information on Food Labels”; Cowburn and Stockley, “Consumer Understanding and Use of Nutrition Labelling”.
11. E. A. Wartella et al., “Front-of-Package Nutrition Rating Systems and Symbols: Promoting Healthier Choices: Phase II Report” (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, Institute of Medicine, 2011).
12. American Heart Association, “Heart Check Food Certification Program”, 2014, NutritionCenter/HeartSmartShopping/Heart-Check-Program_ UCM_300133_Article.jsp.
13. Christina A. Roberto et al., “Facts Up Front Versus Traffic Light Food Labels: A Randomized Controlled Trial”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 43, no. 2 (August 1, 2012): 134-41, doi:10.1016/j. amepre.2012.04.022.
14. Мы называем этот символ «галочкой» или «птичкой». “Heart Foundation Tick”, Heart Foundation New Zealand, 2014, http:// .
15. Ellis L. Vyth et al., “A Front-of-Pack Nutrition Logo: A Quantitative and Qualitative Process Evaluation in the Netherlands”, Journal of Health Communication 14, no. 7 (January 2009): 631-45, doi: 10.1080/10810730903204247; Gray Nathan, “Healthy Logo: Netherlands ‘Choices’ Logo Confirmed as First Government-Backed Scheme in EU”, FoodNavigator.com, 2016, . com/Legislation/Healthy-logo-Netherlands-Choices-logo-confirmed-as-first-government-backed-scheme-in-EU.
16. Wartella et al., “Front-of-Package Nutrition Rating Systems and Symbols”; Roberto et al., “Facts Up Front Versus Traffic Light Food Labels”.
17. Kelly D. Brownell and Jeffrey P. Koplan, “Front-of-Package Nutrition Labeling — An Abuse of Trust by the Food Industry?”, New England Journal of Medicine 364, no. 25 (June 22, 2011): 2373-75, doi: 10.1056/ NEJMpll01033.
18. Изначально она называлась «Ключевые факторы питания». “GMA and FMI Select Agency Partners to Support $50 Million Nutrition Keys Consumer Education Campaign”, FactsUpFront.org, 2011, . factsupfront.org/Newsroom/5.
19. Brownell and Koplan, “Front-of-Package Nutrition Labeling”.
20. Roberto et al., “Facts Up Front Versus Traffic Light Food Labels”.
21. По меньшей мере в Соединенных Штатах. Rajagopal Raghunathan, Rebecca Walker Naylor, and Wayne D. Hoyer, “The Unhealthy = Tasty Intuition and Its Effects on Taste Inferences, Enjoyment, and Choice of Food Products”, Journal of Marketing 70 (2006): 170-84. Во Франции ситуация может быть иной. Carolina О. С. Werle, Olivier Trendel, and Gauthier Ardito, “Unhealthy Food Is Not Tastier for Everybody: The ‘Healthy = Tasty* French Intuition”, Food Quality and Preference 28, no. 1 (April 2013): 116-21, doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.07.007.
22. Stacey R. Finkelstein and Ayelet Fishbach, “When Healthy Food Makes You Hungry”, Journal of Consumer Research 37, no. 3 (October 2010): 357-67, doi: 10.1086/652248.
23. Коллеги непричастны к моему обману, так как не знали, что во время конференции сотрудники моей лаборатории собирают информацию об этих продуктах.
24. American Heart Association, “Heart Check Food Certification Program”.
25. Richard E. Nisbett and Timothy D. Wilson, “Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes”, Psychological Review 84, no. 3 (1977): 231-59.
26. Heather Scherschel Wagner, Maryhope Howland, and Traci Mann, “Effects of Subtle and Explicit Health Messages on Food Choice”, Health Psychology, 2014, doi:10.1037/hea0000045.
27. Sharon S. Brehm and Jack Williams Brehm, “Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control” (New York: Academic Press, 1981).
28. Включая Халли Эспел, впоследствии ставшую одной из наших лучших студенток, и нашего будущего менеджера лаборатории Бритт Альстром.
29. С Мэрихоуп Хауланд и менеджером моей лаборатории Тони Га-бриелли.
30. В Кембриджском университете Тереза Мартеу и сотрудники ее лаборатории тоже обнаружили, что слово «полезные» не побуждает людей выбирать яблоки чаще, а вот сочетание слов «полезные и сочные» такой эффект оказывает. Suzanna Е. Forwood et al., “Choosing between an Apple and a Chocolate Bar: The Impact of Health and Taste Labels”, ed. Sidney Arthur Simon, PloS One 8, no. 10 (January 2013): e77500, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077500.
31. Finkelstein and Fishbach, “When Healthy Food Makes You Hungry”.
32. Эксперимент не обошелся без хитрости. На самом деле оба сэндвича вредны, но участники считают, что вреден только бигмак, а сэндвич из Subway полезен. Р. Chandon and Brian Wansink, “The Biasing Health Halos of Fast Food Restaurant Health Claims: Lower Calorie Estimates and Higher Side Dish Consumption Intentions”, Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. October (2007): 301-14.
33. Отличный эксперимент. Его результаты повлияли на развитие науки о питании. Ни один преподаваемый мной курс, касающийся пищевого поведения, психологии здоровья или методологии исследований, не обходится без его обсуждения. Herman and Mack, “Restrained and Unrestrained Eating”.
34. Janet Polivy and C. Peter Herman, “Dieting and Binging: A Causal Analysis”, American Psychologist 40, no. 2 (1985): 193-201.
35. С Джанет Томияма и Эшли Москович.
36. Janet Tomiyama et al., “Consumption after a Diet Violation: Disinhi-bition or Compensation?”, Psychological Science 20, no. 10 (October 2009): 1275-81, doi:10.1111/j.l467-9280.2009.02436.x.
37. Ravi Dhar and Itamar Simonson, “Making Complementary Choices in Consumption Episodes: Highlighting Versus Balancing”, Journal of Marketing Research (1999): 29-44.
38. Kentaro Fujita et al., “Construal Levels and Self-Control”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90, no. 3 (March 2006): 351-67, doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.351.
39. Tinuke Oluyomi Daniel, Christina M. Stanton, and Leonard H. Epstein, “The Future Is Now: Reducing Impulsivity and Energy Intake Using Episodic Future Thinking”, Psychological Science 24, no. 11 (November 1, 2013): 2339—42, doi:10.1177/0956797613488780.
40. K. Fujita and J. J. Carnevale, “Transcending Temptation Through Abstraction: The Role of Construal Level in Self-Control”, Current Directions in Psychological Science 21, no. 4 (July 25, 2012): 248-52, doi: 10.1177/0963721412449169.
41. Wansink, van Ittersum, and Painter, “How Descriptive Food Names Bias Sensory Perceptions in Restaurants”.
42. Walter Mischel and Nancy Baker, “Cognitive Appraisals and Transformations in Delay Behavior”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 2 (1975): 254.
43. Помните, я сказала, что всего один из 300 социальных психологов, прибывших на конференцию, догадался, что мы проводим эксперимент (с яблоками)? Это был Кен Фудзита. Ничего от него не утаишь.
44. Kentaro Fujita and Н. Anna Han, “Moving Beyond Deliberative Control of Impulses: The Effect of Construal Levels on Evaluative Associations in Self-Control Conflicts”, Psychological Science 20, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 799-804, doi:10.1111/j.l467-9280.2009.02372.x; Kentaro Fujita, “Seeing the Forest Beyond the Trees: A Construal-Level Approach to Self-Control”, Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2, no. 3 (May 2008): 1475-96, doi:10.1111/j.l751-9004.2008.00118.x.
45. Fujita and Han, “Moving Beyond Deliberative Control of Impulses”.
ГЛАВА 9. ЗНАЙТЕ, КОГДА ВЫКЛЮЧИТЬ МОЗГ
1. Jon Henley, “Merde Most Foul”, Guardian, April 12, 2002, http:// .
2. Suzanne Daley, “Budget Cuts May Foul Sidewalks of Paris”, New York Times, November 6, 2001, world/budget-cuts-may-foul-sidewalks-of-paris.html.
3. D. Neal, W. Wood, and J. Quinn, “Habits — A Repeat Performance”, Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 4 (2006): 198-202; Judith A. Ouellette and Wendy Wood, “Habit and Intention in Everyday Life: The Multiple Processes by Which Past Behavior Predicts Future Behavior”, Psychological Bulletin 124, no. 1 (1998): 54-74, doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.124.1.54; Wendy Wood and David T. Neal, “A New Look at Habits and the Habit-Goal Interface”, Psychological Review 114, no. 4 (October 2007): 843-63, doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.843.
4. Я значительно упрощаю информацию, полученную из большого объема исследовательской литературы, посвященной сравнению автоматического и контролируемого поведения. Интересный обзор можно найти в работе: J. A. Bargh and М. J. Ferguson, “Beyond Behaviorism: On the Automaticity of Higher Mental Processes”, Psychological Bulletin 126, no. 6 (November 2000): 925-45.
5. Joanna Robertson, “The Pampered Pooches of Paris”, BBC, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16268890.
6. В этой обстоятельной статье описываются десятки исследований, доказавших, что наши намерения редко совпадают с реальным поведением: Thomas L. Webb and Paschal Sheeran, “Does Changing Behavioral Intentions Engender Behavior Change? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence”, Psychological Bulletin 132, no. 2 (March 2006) : 249-68, doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.249.
7. Phillippa Lally et al., “How Are Habits Formed: Modelling Habit Formation in the Real World”, European Journal of Social Psychology 40, no. 6 (October 16, 2010): 998-1009, doi:10.1002/ejsp.674.
8. Heather Barry Kappes and Gabriele Oettingen, “Positive Fantasies about Idealized Futures Sap Energy”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47, no. 4 (July 2011): 719-29, doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.003.
9. Если сравнивать с теми, кому удалось визуализировать достигнутое. Shelley Е. Taylor et al., “Harnessing the Imagination: Mental Simulation, Self-Regulation, and Coping”, American Psychologist 53, no. 4 (1998): 429-39.
10. Доказательство того, что существующая модель поведения может стать основой для новых привычек, см. в работе: Stef Р. J. Kremers, Klazine van der Horst, and Johannes Brug, “Adolescent Screen-Viewing Behaviour Is Associated with Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages: The Role of Habit Strength and Perceived Parental Norms”, Appetite 48, no. 3 (May 2007): 345-50, doi:10.1016/j. appet.2006.10.002; Judith A Ouellette and Wendy Wood, “Habit and Intention in Everyday Life: The Multiple Processes by Which Past Behavior Predicts Future Behavior”, Psychological Bulletin 124, no. 1 (1998): 54-74; Glenn J. Wagner and Gery W. Ryan, “Relationship between Routinization of Daily Behaviors and Medication Adherence in HIV-Positive Drug Users”, AIDS Patient Care and STDs 18, no. 7 (July 2004): 385-93, doi: 10.1089/1087291041518238.
11. M. Ji and W. Wood, “Purchase and Consumption Habits: Not Necessarily What You Intend”, Journal of Consumer Psychology 17, no. 4 (October 2007) : 261-76, doi:10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70037-2.
12. В связи с выработкой привычки делать физические упражнения об этом упоминается в работе: Wendy Wood, Leona Tam, and Melissa Guerrero Witt, “Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88, no. 6 (2005): 918-33. В работе рассказывается, как та же идея способствует появлению привычки выбирать экологичные способы перемещения: Bas Verplanken et al., “Context Change and Travel Mode Choice: Combining the Habit Discontinuity and Self-Activation Hypotheses”, Journal of Environmental Psychology 28, no. 2 (June 2008): 121-27, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.10.005. До конца не выяснено, действует ли этот принцип в сфере питания, согласно работе: Johannes Brug et al., “Environmental Determinants of Healthy Eating: In Need of Theory and Evidence”, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 67, no. 3 (August 1, 2008): 307-16, doi: 10.1017/S0029665108008616.
13. Jayne Hurley and Bonnie Liebman, “Big: Movie Theaters Fill Buckets... and Bellies”, Nutrition Action Health Letter, December 2009.
14. David T. Neal et al., “The Pull of the Past: When Do Habits Persist Despite Conflict with Motives?”, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 37, no. 11 (November 1, 2011): 1428-37, doi:10.1177/0146167211419863.
15. He рекомендую этого делать — в кинотеатрах не оценят.
16. Bas Verplanken and Wendy Wood, “Interventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits”, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 25, no. 1 (2006): 90-103.
17. Wood, Tam, and Witt, “Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits”.
18. He то чтобы я призывала вас в отпуске питаться исключительно полезно. Скорее, это можно объяснить тем, что сейчас я нахожусь в Париже, где позволяю себе гораздо больше пирожных, чем обычно.
19. Peter М. Gollwitzer, “Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans”, American Psychologist 54, no. 7 (1999): 493-503.
20. Доказательства см. в обзорной статье: Peter М. Gollwitzer and Paschal Sheeran, “Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of Effects and Processes”, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 38 (2006): 69-119, doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601 (06)38002-1. Хорошие примеры можно найти в работе: Peter М. Gollwitzer and Veronika Brandstätter, “Implementation Intentions and Effective Goal Pursuit”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, no. 1 (1997): 186-99.
21. Marieke A. Adriaanse et al., “Do Implementation Intentions Help to Eat a Healthy Diet? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence”, Appetite 56, no. 1 (February 2011): 183-93, doi:10.1016/j. appet.2010.10.012.
22. Bas Verplanken and Suzanne Faes, “Good Intentions, Bad Habits, and Effects of Forming Implementation Intentions on Healthy Eating”, European Journal of Social Psychology 29, no. 5-6 (August 1999): 591-604, doi: 10.1002/(SICI) 1099-0992(199908/09)29:5/6<591::AID-EJSP948>3.0.CO;2-H.
23. Вывод взят из работы: Gollwitzer, “Implementation Intentions”. Доказательства того, что осуществимые намерения помогают противостоять отвлекающим факторам, см.: Ute С. Bayer et al., “Responding to Subliminal Cues: Do If-Then Plans Facilitate Action Preparation and Initiation Without Conscious Intent?”, Social Cognition 27, no. 2 (April 21, 2009): 183-201, doi:10.1521/soco.2009.27.2.183.
24. Подтверждение тому, что осуществимые намерения помогают не упустить и использовать возможность достичь цели, есть в работе: Gollwitzer and Sheeran, “Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement”.
25. Janine Chapman, Christopher J. Armitage, and Paul Norman, “Comparing Implementation Intention Interventions in Relation to Young Adults’ Intake of Fruit and Vegetables”, Psychology & Health 24, no. 3 (March 2009): 317-32, doi: 10.1080/08870440701864538.
26. Marieke A. Adriaanse et al., “Planning What Not to Eat: Ironic Effects of Implementation Intentions Negating Unhealthy Habits”, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 37, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 69-81, doi: 10.1177/0146167210390523.
27. Adriaanse et al., “Do Implementation Intentions Help to Eat a Healthy Diet?”.
28. Данный эксперимент Шарлотта Винкерс упоминает в своей диссертации, на защите которой я присутствовала и от прослушивания которой получила огромное удовольствие. Происходило это в Утрехте (Нидерланды). Charlotte Vinkers, “Future-Oriented Self-Regulation in Eating Behavior” (diss., University of Utrecht, 2013).
29. Данный пример упоминается в статье: Molly J. Crockett et al., “Restricting Temptations: Neural Mechanisms of Precommitment”, Neuron 79, no. 2 (2013): 391-401.
30. D. Ariely and K. Wertenbroch, “Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment”, Psychological Science 13, no. 3 (May 1, 2002): 219-24, doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00441.
31. Yaacov Trope and Ayelet Fishbach, “Counteractive Self-Control in Overcoming Temptation”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 4 (2000): 493-506. См. также: Xavier Gine, Dean Karlan, and Jonathan Zinman, “Put Your Money Where Your Butt Is: A Commitment Contract for Smoking Cessation”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2, no. 4 (2010): 213-35.
32. Janet Schwartz et al., “Healthier by Precommitment”, Psychological Science 25 (January 3,2014): 538-46, doi: 10.1177/0956797613510950.
33. George Loewenstein, “Out of Control: Visceral Influences on Behavior”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 65, no. 3 (March 1996): 272-92, doi:10.1006/obhd.l996.0028; Loran F. Nordgren, Frenk van Harreveld, and Joop van der Pligt, “The Restraint Bias: How the Illusion of Self-Restraint Promotes Impulsive Behavior”, Psychological Science 20, no. 12 (December 1, 2009): 1523-28, doi:10.1111/j.l467-9280.2009.02468.x.
ГЛАВА 10. КАК УСПОКОИТЬ АСТРОНАВТА
1. Доказательства, опубликованные NASA, см. в работе: Michele Perchonok and Grace Douglas, “Risk Factor of Inadequate Food System”, in “Human Health Performance Risks of Space Exploration Missions: Evidence Reviewed by the NASA Human Research Program”, ed. Jancy C. McPhee and John B. Charles (Houston: NASA, 2009), 295-316.
2. Charles T. Bourland and Gregory L. Vogt, “The Astronaut’s Cookbook: Tales, Recipes, and More” (New York: Springer International, 2009).
3. B. J. Caldwell et al., “Fluid Shift to the Upper Body Reduces Nasal Cavity Dimension and Airflow in Head-Down Bed Rest Subjects”, in “NASA Human Research Program Investigators’ Workshop” (Houston, 2012).
4. Barb Stuckey, “Taste: Surprising Stories and Science About why Food Tastes Good” (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012).
5. Perchonok and Douglas, “Risk Factor of Inadequate Food System”.
6. См., например: D. J. Wallis and M. M. Hetherington, “Emotions and Eating. Self-Reported and Experimentally Induced Changes in Food Intake under Stress”, Appetite 52, no. 2 (April 2009): 355-62, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.007. См. обзорную статью: C. Greeno and R. Wing, “Stress-Induced Eating”, Psychological Bulletin 115 (1994): 444.
7. J. McPhee and J. Charles, eds., Human Health Performance Risks of Space Exploration Missions: Evidence Reviewed by the NASA Human Research Program (Houston: NASA, 2009).
8. Этими коллегами были Джо Редден, Зата Викерс, а также аспиранты Хизер Вагнер, Рейчел Бернс и Кэти Осдоба и менеджер лаборатории Бритт Альстром.
9. В действительности никто никогда не проводил эксперименты так, как нам представлялось верным: никто не подбирал успокаивающий продукт персонально для каждого испытуемого, но существует одно довольно скрупулезное исследование воздействия шоколада на настроение людей: Michael Macht and Jochen Mueller, “Immediate Effects of Chocolate on Experimentally Induced Mood States”, Appetite 49, no. 3 (November 2007): 667-74, doi:10.1016/j. appet.2007.05.004.
10. Вот насколько сильно мы верили в то, что успокаивающие продукты улучшают настроение.
11. В том, что все продукты были найдены, заслуга исключительно Бритт Альстром, менеджера моей лаборатории.
12. Результаты четырех экспериментов по воздействию успокаивающих продуктов на настроение человека, которые описываются в этой главе, опубликованы в работе: Heather Wagner et al., “The Myth of Comfort Food”, Health Psychology (2014).
13. Те из вас, кто занимается методологией исследований, могут задаться вопросом, а не улучшили ли мы настроение испытуемых настолько, что эффект от потребления успокаивающих продуктов не мог превзойти действие обычных продуктов (это называется «эффектом потолка»). Это не тот случай, что наиболее заметно по четвертому эксперименту.
14. Не исключено, что потребление шоколада способствует улучшению настроения на длительный период, но не сразу, как мы того ожидаем от успокаивающих продуктов, а позже. Для ознакомления с обзорной статьей см.: Andrew Scholey and Lauren Owen, “Effects of Chocolate on Cognitive Function and Mood: A Systematic Review”, Nutrition Reviews 71, no. 10 (October 2013): 665-81, doi:10.1111/ nure.12065.
15. Wagner et al., “The Myth of Comfort Food”.
16. Популярный среди астронавтов успокаивающий продукт.
17. Есть люди, предрасположенные к тому, чтобы выискивать успокаивающие продукты или есть в плохом настроении. Их называют «эмоциональными едоками». Нет доказательств тому, что успокаивающие продукты помогают им сильнее, чем обычным людям. Соответствующие данные см. в работе: Tatjana van
Strien et al., “The Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) for Assessment of Restrained, Emotional, and External Eating Behavior”, International Journal of Eating Disorders 5, no. 2 (February 1986): 295-315, doi:10.1002/1098-108X(198602)5:2<295::AID-EAT2260050209>3.0.CO;2-T.
18. Meryl P. Gardner et al., “Better Moods for Better Eating? How Mood Influences Food Choice”, Journal of Consumer Psychology (January 2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jcps.2014.01.002.
19. Yann Cornil and Pierre Chandon, “From Fan to Fat? Vicarious Losing Increases Unhealthy Eating, but Self-Affirmation Is an Effective Remedy”, Psychological Science 24, no. 10 (October 1, 2013): 1936-46, doi: 10.1177/0956797613481232.
20. Michael Macht, Jessica Meininger, and Jochen Roth, “The Pleasures of Eating: A Qualitative Analysis”, Journal of Happiness Studies 6, no. 2 (June 2005): 137-60, doi:10.1007/sl0902-005-0287-x; Jordi Quoidbach et al., “Positive Emotion Regulation and Well-Being: Comparing the Impact of Eight Savoring and Dampening Strategies”, Personality and Individual Differences 49, no. 5 (October 2010): 368-73, doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.048.
21. E. K. Papies, L. W. Barsalou, and R. Custers, “Mindful Attention Prevents Mindless Impulses”, Social Psychological and Personality Science 3, no. 3 (August 29, 2011): 291-99, doi:10.1177/1948550611419031. См. также: P. Rozin et al., “The Ecology of Eating: Smaller Portion Sizes in France Than in the United States Help Explain the French Paradox”, Psychological Science 14, no. 5 (September 1, 2003): 450-54, doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.02452.
22. Как мы с Эндрю Уордом выяснили в наших ранних экспериментах, это справедливо по отношению к тем, кто соблюдает диету или пытается ничего не есть. Ward and Mann, “Don’t Mind If I Do: Disinhibited Eating Under Cognitive Load”, April 1, 2000; Traci Mann and Andrew Ward, “To Eat or Not to Eat: Implications of the Attentional Myopia Model for Restrained Eaters”, Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113, no. 1 (2004): 90-98.
23. Reine C. van der Wal and Lotte F. van Dillen, “Leaving a Flat Taste in Your Mouth: Task Load Reduces Taste Perception”, Psychological Science 24, no. 7 (July 1, 2013): 1277-84, doi:10.1177/0956797612471953.
24. Существует небольшое различие. Люди, питающиеся по интуиции, отрицают разного рода диеты и едят только то, что «просит» организм. Те же, кто выбирает методику осознанного питания, при внимательном отношении к принятию пищи и чувству голода могут придерживаться определенного плана питания. Подробнее об этом см. в работах: Tracy L. Tylka, “Development and Psychometric Evaluation of a Measure of Intuitive Eating”, Journal of Counseling Psychology 53, no. 2 (2006): 226-40; Celia Framson et al., “Development and Validation of the Mindful Eating Questionnaire”, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109, no. 8 (August 2009): 1439-44, doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.006.
25. См. примеры в работах: Gayle M. Timmerman and Adama Brown, “The Effect of a Mindful Restaurant Eating Intervention on Weight Management in Women”, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 44, no. 1 (January 2012): 22-28, doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2011.03.143. Обзорный материал: G. A. O’Reilly et al., “Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Obesity-Related Eating Behaviours: A Literature Review”, Obesity Reviews (March 18, 2014), doi:10.1111/obr.l2156.
26. Linda Bacon et al., “Size Acceptance and Intuitive Eating Improve Health for Obese, Female Chronic Dieters”, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 6 (June 2005): 929-36, doi:10.1016/j. jada.2005.03.011.
27. О двух из трех экспериментов, подтверждающих это, см.: O’Reilly et al., “Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Obesity-Related Eating Behaviours”.
28. Megan Spanjers, “A Nutritious Diet Without Calorie Counting and Restrictive Rules? An Analysis of Nutrition Trends among Intuitive Eaters” (University of Minnesota, 2013).
29. Вывод подтвержден 11 из 12 экспериментов, упомянутых в книге: O’Reilly et al., “Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Obesity-Related Eating Behaviours”. Для ознакомления с примерами см.: Jean Kristeller, Ruth Q. Wolever, and Virgil Sheets, “Mindfulness-Based Eating Awareness Training (МВ-EAT) for Binge Eating: A Randomized Clinical Trial”, Mindfulness (February 1, 2013), doi:10.1007/sl2671-012-0179-1.
30. P. Rozin et al., “Attitudes to Food and the Role of Food in Life in the U.S.A., Japan, Flemish Belgium and France: Possible Implications for the Diet-Health Debate”, Appetite 33, no. 2 (October 1999): 163-80, doi: 10.1006/appe.l999.0244.
31. Мои дети называют это «тележеванием».
32. Rozin et al., “The Ecology of Eating”.
33. Rozin et al., “Attitudes to Food and the Role of Food in Life in the U.S.A., Japan, Flemish Belgium and France”.
34. Там же.
35. Jordi Quoidbach et al., “Money Giveth, Money Taketh Away: The Dual Effect of Wealth on Happiness”, Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (June 1, 2010): 759-63, doi:10.1177/0956797610371963.
36. Там же.
37. Richard Kirshenbaum, “Let Them Eat Kale: Extreme Dieters Ruining Dinner Parties for Everyone Else. Two Almonds Is Now Considered a Meal?”, New York Observer, January 21, 2014.
ГЛАВА 11. ПОЧЕМУ НАДО ПОКОНЧИТЬ СО СТЕРЕОТИПАМИ И ПРИНЯТЬ СВОЕ ТЕЛО
1. Art Caplan, “New Zealand’s Solution for Rising Health Costs? Deport Fat People”, NBC News, 2013, http://www.nbcnews.com/health/diet-fitness/new-zealands-solution-rising-health-costs-deport-fat-people-f6C10861122.
2. Helen Carter, “Too Fat to Adopt — the Married, Teetotal Couple Rejected by Council Because of Man’s Weight”, Guardian, January 16, 2009.
3. Mark V. Roehling et al., “The Effects of Weight Bias on Job-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies”, in “Academy of Management Annual Meeting”, Anaheim, CA, 2008.
4. M. V. Roehling, P. V. Roehling, and L. M. Odland, “Investigating the Validity of Stereotypes about Overweight Employees: The Relationship between Body Weight and Normal Personality Traits”, Group & Organization Management 33, no. 4 (May 28, 2008): 392-424, doi: 10.1177/1059601108321518.
5. Brian A. Nosek et al., “Pervasiveness and Correlates of Implicit Attitudes and Stereotypes”, European Review of Social Psychology 18, no. 1 (January 2007): 36-88, doi: 10.1080/10463280701489053. 69% участников предпочли стройных полным.
6. Там же.
7. R. Т. Azevedo et al., “Weighing the Stigma of Weight: An fMRI Study of Neural Reactivity to the Pain of Obese Individuals”, Neuroimage 91 (May 1, 2014): 109-19, doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.11.041.
8. R. M. Puhl, T. Andreyeva, and K. D. Brownell, “Perceptions of Weight Discrimination: Prevalence and Comparison to Race and Gender
Discrimination in America”, International Journal of Obesity 32, no. 6 (2008): 992-1000, doi:10.1038/ijo.2008.22.
9. Puhl and Heuer, “The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update”, 2009.
10. Для ознакомления со статистикой приема в колледжи см.: Jane Wardle, Jo Waller, and Martin J. Jarvis, “Sex Differences in the Association of Socioeconomic Status with Obesity”, American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 8 (August 10, 2002): 1299-1304, doi: 10.2105/AJPH.92.8.1299. Описание ситуации с оплатой медицинских страховок см.: Walter Hamilton, “Report: CVS Caremark Demands Workers Disclose Weight, Health Info”, Los Angeles Times, March 20, 2013.
11. Обзор существующих и предлагаемых мер правовой защиты см.: Young Suh et al., “Support for Laws to Prohibit Weight Discrimination in the United States: Public Attitudes from 2011 to 2013”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 22, no. 8 (April 8, 2014): 1872-9, doi: 10.1002/ oby.20750.
12. Статистические данные о мальчиках см. в работе: Nina Karnehed et al., “Obesity and Attained Education: Cohort Study of More than 700,000 Swedish Men”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 14, no. 8 (August 2006): 1421-28, doi:10.1038/oby.2006.161. Статистические данные о девочках см. в работе: R. Crosnoe, “Gender, Obesity, and Education”, Sociology of Education 80, no. 3 (July 1, 2007): 241-60, doi:10.1177/003804070708000303. Статистические данные о мальчиках и девочках без учета уровня интеллекта см. в работе: Wardle, Waller, and Jarvis, “Sex Differences in the Association of Socioeconomic Status with Obesity”.
13. Jacob M. Burmeister et al., “Weight Bias in Graduate School Admissions”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 21, no. 5 (May 2013): 918-20, doi:10.1002/ oby.20171.
14. Для ознакомления с обзором см.: R. Puhl and С. Heuer, “The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update”, Obesity 17, no. 5 (2009): 941-64.
15. Scott Klarenbach et al., “Population-Based Analysis of Obesity and Workforce Participation”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 14, no. 5 (May 2006): 920-27, doi:10.1038/oby.2006.106.
16. Roehling et al., “The Effects of Weight Bias on Job-Related Outcomes”.
17. K. S. O’Brien et al., “Obesity Discrimination: The Role of Physical Appearance, Personal Ideology, and Anti-Fat Prejudice”, International Journal of Obesity 37, no. 3 (March 2013): 455-60, doi:10.1038/ ijo.2012.52.
18. Klarenbach et al., “Population-Based Analysis of Obesity and Workforce Participation”.
19. Центру пришлось пересмотреть свою политику после того, как к ней было привлечено внимание журналистов. “Texas-Based Hospital ‘Citizens Medical Center’ Suspends Body Mass Index Employment Requirement”, Obesity Action Coalition, 2012, http:// www.obesityaction.org/newsroom/news-releases/2012-news-releases/ texas-based-hospital-citizens-medical-center-suspends-body-mass-index-employment-requirement.
20. Roehling et al., “The Effects of Weight Bias on Job-Related Outcomes”.
21. Обстоятельное обсуждение вопроса можно найти в главе 6 книги: Terry Poulton, “No Fat Chicks: How Big Business Profits by Making Women Hate Their Bodies — And How to Fight Back” (New York: Birch Lane Press, 1997).
22. Там же.
23. Charles L. Baum and William F. Ford, “The Wage Effects of Obesity: A Longitudinal Study”, Health Economics 13, no. 9 (September 2004): 885-99, doi:10.1002/hec.881. Для ознакомления с данными о состоянии дел в Европе см.: Giorgio Brunello and Béatrice D’Hombres, “Does Body Weight Affect Wages? Evidence from Europe”, Economics and Human Biology 5, no. 1 (March 2007): 1-19, doi:10.1016/j. ehb.2006.11.002.
24. Timothy A. Judge and Daniel M. Cable, “When It Comes to Pay, Do the Thin Win? The Effect of Weight on Pay for Men and Women”, Journal of Applied Psychology 96, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 95-112, doi: 10.1037/ a0020860.
25. Baum and Ford, “The Wage Effects of Obesity”.
26. Patricia V. Roehling et al., “Weight Discrimination and the Glass Ceiling Effect among Top US CEOs”, Equal Opportunities International 28, no. 2 (February 13, 2009): 179-96, doi:10.1108/02610150910937916.
27. Patricia V. Roehling et al., “Weight Bias in US Candidate Selection and Election”, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion 33, no. 4 (May 13, 2014): 334-46, doi: 10.1108/EDI-10-2013-0081.
28. N. A. Schvey et al., “The Influence of a Defendant’s Body Weight on Perceptions of Guilt”, International Journal of Obesity (2005) 37, no. 9 (September 2013): 1275-81, doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.211.
29. Jason D. Seacat, Sarah C. Dougal, and Dooti Roy, “A Daily Diary Assessment of Female Weight Stigmatization”, Journal of Health Psychology (March 18, 2014): 1359105314525067-, doi: 10.1177/1359105314525067.
30. См. также: Puhl and Brownell, “Confronting and Coping with Weight Stigma”.
31. Michael Scherer, “The Elephant in the Room: How Chris Christie Can Win Over the GOP”, Time, November 18, 2013.
32. Puhl and Brownell, “Confronting and Coping with Weight Stigma”.
33. См. главу 4 книги Poulton, “No Fat Chicks”. См. также: Lesley, “What’s Wrong with Fat-Shaming?”, XOJane.com, 2012, . com/issues/whats-wrong-fat-shaming. Эту грустную и превосходно написанную статью стоит прочесть целиком.
34. Poulton, “No Fat Chicks”. См. также: Lesley, “What’s Wrong with Fat-Shaming?”.
35. Пример можно найти в работе: Rod Liddle, “If We Don’t Stigmatise Fat People, There’ll Be Lots More of Them”, Spectator, October 19, 2013.
36. Daniel Callahan, “Obesity: Chasing an Elusive Epidemic”, Hastings Center Report 43, no. 1 (2013): 34—40, doi:10.1002/hast.H4. Помимо этого, автор заявляет, что порицание курильщиков в последние десятилетия помогло уменьшить их количество. Неясно, правда ли это, но даже если так, то совсем необязательно, что такой метод применим и для борьбы с ожирением (судя по данным, которые приводятся в этой главе, он неэффективен).
37. Liddle, “If We Don’t Stigmatise Fat People, There’ll Be Lots More of Them”.
38. Brenda Major et al., “The Ironic Effects of Weight Stigma”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 51 (March 2014): 74-80, doi:10.1016/j. jesp.2013.11.009.
39. Подтверждают это и другие эксперименты. См.: Elizabeth А. Pascoe and Laura Smart Richman, “Effect of Discrimination on Food Decisions”, Self and Identity 10, no. 3 (July 2011): 396-406, doi: 10.1080/15298868.2010.526384; Natasha A. Schvey, Rebecca M. Puhl, and Kelly D. Brownell, “The Impact of Weight Stigma on Caloric Consumption”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 19, no. 10 (October 2011): 1957-62, doi:10.1038/oby.2011.204; Rebecca Puhl, Joerg Luedicke, and Jamie Lee Peterson, “Public Reactions to Obesity-Related Health Campaigns: A Randomized Controlled Trial”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 45, no. 1 (July 1, 2013): 36-48, doi:10.1016/j. amepre.2013.02.010.
40. Lenny R. Vartanian and Sarah A. Novak, “Internalized Societal Attitudes Moderate the Impact of Weight Stigma on Avoidance of Exercise”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 19, no. 4 (April 2011): 757-62, doi:10.1038/oby.2010.234; Lenny R. Vartanian and Jacqueline G. Shaprow, “Effects of Weight Stigma on Exercise Motivation and Behavior: A Preliminary Investigation among College-Aged Females”, Journal of Health Psychology 13, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 131-38, doi: 10.1177/1359105307084318.
41. Jason D. Seacat and Kristin D. Mickelson, “Stereotype Threat and the Exercise / Dietary Health Intentions of Overweight Women”, Journal of Health Psychology 14, no. 4 (May 1, 2009): 556-67, doi: 10.1177/1359105309103575.
42. Vartanian and Shaprow, “Effects of Weight Stigma on Exercise Motivation and Behavior”; Vartanian and Novak, “Internalized Societal Attitudes Moderate the Impact of Weight Stigma on Avoidance of Exercise”.
43. Чисто технически это предотвращало ожидаемое понижение уровня кортизола. Schvey, Puhl, and Brownell, “The Stress of Stigma”. См. также: Tomiyama et al., “Associations of Weight Stigma with Cortisol and Oxidative Stress Independent of Adiposity”.
44. Полным актерам достается лишь 5% главных ролей в телешоу, а для съемок в фильме не считается обязательным заключать с ними контракт. Bradley S. Greenberg et al., “Portrayals of Overweight and Obese Individuals on Commercial Television”, American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 8 (August 10, 2003): 1342^8, doi: 10.2105/ AJPH.93.8.1342.
45. Jeffrey M. Hunger and A. Janet Tomiyama, “Weight Labeling and Obesity”, JAMA Pediatrics (April 28, 2014), doi: 10.1001/ jamapediatrics.2014.122. Статистические данные о взрослых см. в работе: Angelina R. Sutin and Antonio Terracciano, “Perceived Weight Discrimination and Obesity”, ed. Robert L. Newton, PloS One 8, no. 7 (January 2013): e70048, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070048.
46. Flegal et al., “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in the Distribution of Body Mass Index among US Adults, 1999-2010”.
47. Tatiana Andreyeva, Rebecca M. Puhl, and Kelly D. Brownell, “Changes in Perceived Weight Discrimination among Americans, 1995-1996 through 2004-2006”, Obesity (Silver Spring, MD) 16, no. 5 (May 2008): 1129-34, doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.35.
48. Gordon W. Allport, “The Nature of Prejudice” (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954). Для ознакомления с характерным примером гомофобии см.: Sebastian Е. Barto, Israel Berger, and Peter Hegarty, “Interventions to Reduce Sexual Prejudice: A Study-Space Analysis and Meta-Analytic Review”, Journal of Sex Research 51, no. 4 (January 2014): 363-82, doi:10.1080/00224499.2013.871625.
49. S. S. Wang, K. D. Brownell, and T. A. Wadden, “The Influence of the Stigma of Obesity on Overweight Individuals”, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 10 (October 1, 2004): 1333-7, doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802730.
50. Tracy Moore, “I Don’t Love (or Hate) My Body — and So Can You!”, Jezebel.com, 2014, http://jezebel.com/i-dont-love-or-hate-my-body-and-so-can-you-1557099034.
51. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, “The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls” (New York: Vintage Books, 1998).
52. Там же.
53. “Gym, Health & Fitness Clubs in the US: Market Research Report”, IBISWorld.com, 2014, http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/default. aspx?indid=1655.
54. Se-Jin Lee, “Regulation of Muscle Mass by Myostatin”, Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 20 (January 8, 2004): 61-86, doi: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.20.012103.135836.
55. Frank Bruni, “These Wretched Vessels”, New York Times, December 24, 2012.
ГЛАВА 12. О РЕАЛЬНЫХ ПРИЧИНАХ НЕОБХОДИМОСТИ ФИЗИЧЕСКИХ УПРАЖНЕНИЙ И О ФОРМИРОВАНИИ ПРИВЫЧКИ К НИМ
1. Четкая позиция по данному вопросу сформулирована в работе: Amy Luke and Richard S. Cooper, “Physical Activity Does Not Influence Obesity Risk: Time to Clarify the Public Health Message”, International Journal of Epidemiology 42, no. 6 (December 1, 2013): 1831-36, doi:10.1093/ije/dytl59. Для ознакомления с противоположной точкой зрения см.: James О. Hill and John С. Peters, “Commentary: Physical Activity and Weight Control”, International Journal of Epidemiology 42, no. 6 (December 1, 2013): 1840-42, doi: 10.1093/ije/dytl61.
2. Один из девяти фактов об ожирении, представленных в работе: Casazza et al., “Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity”.
3. Petra Stiegler and Adam Cunliffe, “The Role of Diet and Exercise for the Maintenance of Fat-Free Mass and Resting Metabolic Rate during
Weight Loss”, Sports Medicine (Auckland, NZ) 36, no. 3 (January 2006): 239-62.
4. N. A. King et al., “The Interaction between Exercise, Appetite, and Food Intake: Implications for Weight Control”, American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 7, no. 4 (February 6, 2013): 265-73, doi: 10.1177/1559827613475584; Catia Martins et al., “Effects of Exercise on Gut Peptides, Energy Intake and Appetite”, Journal of Endocrinology 193, no. 2 (May 1, 2007): 251-58, doi:10.1677/JOE-06-0030.
5. Carolina О. C. Werle, Brian Wansink, and Collin R. Payne, “Just Thinking about Exercise Makes Me Serve More Food: Physical Activity and Calorie Compensation”, Appetite 56, no. 2 (April 2011): 332-35, doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2010.12.016.
6. 150 минут тренировок средней интенсивности (или 75 минут тренировок высокой интенсивности) в неделю рекомендованы для поддержания здоровья, для похудения же надо заниматься спортом по 300 минут в неделю при средней интенсивности (или по 150 при высокой). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans”, http://www.health. gov/paguidelines/.
7. Этот вывод следует из анализа 80 экспериментов, в которых участвовало более миллиона человек. Примерно в половине исследований особое внимание уделялось контролю массы тела. Guenther Samitz, Matthias Egger, and Marcel Zwahlen, “Domains of Physical Activity and All-Cause Mortality: Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies”, International Journal of Epidemiology 40, no. 5 (October 1, 2011): 1382-400, doi:10.1093/ije/dyrll2.
8. За больными наблюдали более восьми лет. Edward W. Gregg et al., “Relationship of Walking to Mortality among US Adults with Diabetes”, Archives of Internal Medicine 163, no. 12 (June 23, 2003): 1440-7, doi:10.1001/archinte.l63.12.1440.
9. Samitz, Egger, and Zwahlen, “Domains of Physical Activity and All-Cause Mortality”.
10. Huseyin Naci and John P. A. Ioannidis, “Comparative Effectiveness of Exercise and Drug Interventions on Mortality Outcomes: Metaepidemiological Study”, BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 347 (January 2013): f5577.
11. Там же.
12. Mark Hamer, Kim L. Lavoie, and Simon L. Bacon, “Taking Up Physical Activity in Later Life and Healthy Ageing: The English Longitudinal Study of Ageing”, British Journal of Sports Medicine 48, no. 3 (February 1, 2014): 239-43, doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092993.
13. Francesco Sofi et al., “Physical Activity during Leisure Time and Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies”, European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation 15, no. 3 (June 1, 2008): 247-57, doi: 10.1097/ HJR.0b013e3282f232ac.
14. Chong Do Lee, Aaron R. Folsom, and Steven N. Blair, “Physical Activity and Stroke Risk: A Meta-Analysis”, Stroke 34, no. 10 (October 1, 2003): 2475-81, doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000091843.02517.9D.
15. Frank B. Hu et al., “Walking Compared with Vigorous Physical Activity and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women”, JAMA 282, no. 15 (October 20,1999): 1433, doi:10.1001/jama.282.15.1433; S. P. Helmrich et al., “Physical Activity and Reduced Occurrence of Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus”, New England Journal of Medicine 325, no. 3 (July 18, 1991): 147-52, doi:10.1056/NEJM199107183250302; Bridget M. Kuehn, “Physical Activity May Stave Off Diabetes for Women at Risk”, JAMA(dec63) 311, no. 22 (June 11, 2014): 2263, doi:10.1001/ jama.2014.6862.
16. Inger Thune and Anne-Sofie Furberg, “Physical Activity and Cancer Risk: Dose-Response and Cancer, All Sites and Site-Specific”, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33, Suppl. (June 1, 2001): S530-S550, doi: 10.1097/00005768-200106001-00025.
17. Это происходит, даже если масса тела не уменьшается. Sean Carroll and Mike Dudfield, “What Is the Relationship between Exercise and Metabolic Abnormalities?”, Sports Medicine 34, no. 6 (2004): 371-418, doi: 10.2165/00007256-200434060-00004.
18. Kelly M. Naugle, Roger B. Fillingim, and Joseph L. Riley, “A Meta-Analytic Review of the Hypoalgesic Effects of Exercise”, Journal of Pain 13, no. 12 (December 2012): 1139-50, doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2012.09.006.
19. Liisa Byberg et al., “Total Mortality After Changes in Leisure Time Physical Activity in 50 Year Old Men: 35 Year Follow-up of Population Based Cohort”, BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 338, no. mar05_2 (January 5, 2009): b688, doi: 10.1136/bmj.b688.
20. Caudwell et al., “Exercise Alone Is Not Enough”.
21. Там же.
22. Один из девяти фактов об ожирении, представленных в работе: Casazza et al., "Myths, Presumptions, and Facts about Obesity’’.
23. Petri Wiklutul cl nl., "Metabolic Response to 6-Week Aerobic Exercise Training and Dieting in Previously Sedentary Overweight and Obese Pre-Menopmisnl Women: Л Randomized Trial”, Journal of Sport and Health Science (.June 2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.013.
24. Organisation lor Economic Co-operation and Development Better Life Index, 2014, Center lor Economic and Policy Research, http://www. cepr.net/index.php/piiblications/reports/no-vacation-nation-2013.
25. Rebecca Ray, Milla Stines, and John Schmitt, “No-Vacation Nation Revisited” (Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research, 2013).
26. Главные доказательства пагубного воздействия стресса на здоровье собраны п грамотно и хорошо написанной книге: Robert Sapolsky, "Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers”, 3rd.ed. (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2004). J[m\ ознакомления с классическим научным обзором см.: McEwen and Seeman, “Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress”.
27. Хороший тому пример — эксперименты с прыжками с парашютом. Подробнее см.: Manfred Schedlowski et al., “Changes of Natural Killer Cells during Acute Psychological Stress”, Journal of Clinical Immunology 13, no. 2 (March 1993): 119-26, doi:10.1007/BF00919268.
28. S. Cohen, D. Janicki-Deverts, and G. E. Miller, “Psychological Stress and Disease”, JAMA 298, no. 14 (2007): 1685-87, doi:10.1001/ jama.298.14.1685.
29. Sapolsky, “Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers”.
30. Там же.
31. Там же.
32. Sally S. Dickerson and Margaret E. Kemeny, “Acute Stressors and Cortisol Responses: A Theoretical Integration and Synthesis of Laboratory Research”, Psychological Bulletin 130, no. 3 (May 1, 2004): 355-91, doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355; Gregory E. Miller, Edith Chen, and Eric S. Zhou, “If It Goes Up, Must It Come Down? Chronic Stress and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis in Humans”, Psychological Bulletin 133, no. 1 (2007): 25-45.
33. P. Bjorntorp, “Do Stress Reactions Cause Abdominal Obesity and Comorbidities?”, Obesity Reviews 2, no. 2 (May 2001): 73-86, doi:10.1046/j.l467 789x. 2001.00027.x; E. S. Epel et al., “Stress and Body Shape: Stress-Induced Cortisol Secretion Is Consistently Greater among Women with Central Fat”, Psychosomatic Medicine 62, no. 5 (2000): 623-32.
34. Suzanne C. Segerstrom and Gregory E. Miller, “Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry”, Psychological Bulletin 130, no. 4 (July 1, 2004): 601-30, doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601; Theodore F. Robles, Ronald Glaser, and Janice K. Kiecolt-Glaser, “Out of Balance. A New Look at Chronic Stress, Depression, and Immunity”, Current Directions in Psychological Science 14, no. 2 (April 2005): 111-15, doi:10.1111/ j.0963-7214.2005.00345.x; Schedlowski et al., “Changes of Natural Killer Cells during Acute Psychological Stress”.
35. Sheldon Cohen, David A. Tyrrell, and Andrew P. Smith, “Psychological Stress and Susceptibility to the Common Cold”, New England Journal of Medicine 325, no. 9 (1991): 606-12.
36. Jessica Walburn et al., “Psychological Stress and Wound Healing in Humans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 67, no. 3 (September 2009): 253-71, doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.04.002.
37. Elissa S. Epel et al., “Accelerated Telomere Shortening in Response to Life Stress”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, no. 49 (December 7, 2004): 17312-15, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0407162101.
38. Kimberly A. Brownley et al., “Sympathoadrenergic Mechanisms in Reduced Hemodynamic Stress Responses After Exercise”, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 35, no. 6 (June 2003): 978-86, doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000069335.12756.1B.
39. Peter Salmon, “Effects of Physical Exercise on Anxiety, Depression, and Sensitivity to Stress”, Clinical Psychology Review 21, no. 1 (February 2001): 33-61, doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00032-X.
40. Cheryl J. Hansen, Larry C. Stevens, and J. Richard Coast, “Exercise Duration and Mood State: How Much Is Enough to Feel Better?”, Health Psychology 20, no. 4 (July 1, 2001): 267-75, doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.20.4.267.
41. J. C. Coulson, J. McKenna, and M. Field, “Exercising at Work and Self-Reported Work Performance”, International Journal of Workplace Health Management 1, no. 3 (September 26, 2008): 176-97, doi: 10.1108/17538350810926534; Robert R. Yeung, “The Acute Effects of Exercise on Mood State”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 40, no. 2 (February 1996): 123-41, doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(95)00554-4.
42. Salmon, “Effects of Physical Exercise on Anxiety, Depression, and Sensitivity to Stress”.
43. Steven J. Petruzzello et al., “A Meta-Analysis on the Anxiety-Reducing Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercise”, Sports Medicine 11, no. 3 (March 1991): 143-82, doi: 10.2165/00007256-199111030-00002.
44. Peter J. Carek, Sarah E. Laibstain, and Stephen M. Carek, “Exercise for the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety”, International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 41, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 15-28, doi:10.2190/ PM.41.1.c; Andreas Broocks et al., “Comparison of Aerobic Exercise, Clomipramine, and Placebo in the Treatment of Panic Disorder”, American Journal of Psychiatry 155, no. 5 (May 1, 1998): 603-9.
45. Carek, Laibstain, and Carek, “Exercise for the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety”; Gillian E. Mead et al., “Exercise for Depression”, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews no. 4 (January 2008): CD004366, doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub3.
46. Hamer, Lavoie, and Bacon, “Taking Up Physical Activity in Later Life and Healthy Ageing”.
47. Daniel Y. T. Fong et al., “Physical Activity for Cancer Survivors: Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials”, BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 344, no. jan30_5 (January 31, 2012): e70, doi: 10.1136/bmj.e70.
48. M. E. Hopkins et al., “Differential Effects of Acute and Regular Physical Exercise on Cognition and Affect”, Neuroscience 215 (July 26, 2012): 59-68, doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.04.056; Hamer, Lavoie, and Bacon, “Taking Up Physical Activity in Later Life and Healthy Ageing”; Maria A. I. Aberg et al., “Cardiovascular Fitness Is Associated with Cognition in Young Adulthood”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, no. 49 (December 8, 2009): 20906-11, doi:10.1073/pnas.0905307106; Arthur F. Kramer, Kirk I. Erickson, and Stanley J. Colcombe, “Exercise, Cognition, and the Aging Brain”, Journal of Applied Physiology 101, no. 4 (October 1, 2006): 1237-42, doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00500.2006.
49. Kate Lambourne and Phillip Tomporowski, “The Effect of Exercise-Induced Arousal on Cognitive Task Performance: A Meta-Regression Analysis”, Brain Research 1341 (June 23, 2010): 12-24, doi:10.1016/j. brainres.2010.03.091.
50. Marily Oppezzo and Daniel L. Schwartz, “Give Your Ideas Some Legs: The Positive Effect of Walking on Creative Thinking”, Journal of Experimental Psychology (2014).
51. Shelley S. Tworoger et al., “Effects of a Yearlong Moderate-Intensity Exercise and a Stretching Intervention on Sleep Quality in Postmenopausal Women”, Sleep 26, no. 7 (2003): 830-38.
52. Abby C. King et al., “Moderate-Intensity Exercise and Self-Rated Quality of Sleep in Older Adults”, JAMA 277, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 32-37, doi: 10.1001/jama. 1997.03540250040029.
53. В этой работе не учитывается масса тела и ее изменения. Hamer, Lavoie, and Bacon, “Taking Up Physical Activity in Later Life and Healthy Ageing”.
54. B. L. Tracy et al., “Muscle Quality. II. Effects of Strength Training in 65-to 75-Yr-Old Men and Women”, Journal of Applied Physiology 86, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 195-201.
55. Kramer, Erickson, and Colcombe, “Exercise, Cognition, and the Aging Brain”.
56. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans”.
57. Подсчитать максимальный пульс можно на веб-сайте по адресу: http://www.ntnu.edu/cerg/hrmax.
58. Karissa L. Canning et al., “Individuals Underestimate Moderate and Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity”, ed. Conrad P. Earnest, PloS One 9, no. 5 (January 2014): e97927, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097927.
59. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,“2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans”.
60. Ross C. Brownson, Tegan K. Boehmer, and Douglas A. Luke, “Declining Rates of Physical Activity in the United States: What Are the Contributors?”, Annual Review of Public Health 26 (October 7, 2005): 421-43.
61. Там же.
62. Там же.
63. Uri Ladabaum et al., “Obesity, Abdominal Obesity, Physical Activity, and Caloric Intake in US Adults: 1988 to 2010”, American Journal of Medicine 127, no. 8 (August 2014): 717-727.el2, doi:10.1016/j. amjmed.2014.02.026.
64. Цель программы «Упражнение — это лекарство» — популяризация упражнений наряду с другими способами профилактики заболеваний, а также учет степени физической активности пациентов при их приеме. 11рограмма поддерживается сотнями организаций, связанных со здравоохранением. Список организаций доступен по ссылке: http://www.cxerciseismedicine.org/supporters.htm.
65. Susan A. Carlson cl al., “Trend and Prevalence Estimates Based on the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 89, no. 4 (October 2010): 305-13, doi:10.1016/j. amepre.2() 10.06.006.
66. Jared M. Uickci, Gregory J. Welk, and Nicholas K. Beyler, “Physical Activity in U.S.: Adults Compliance with the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 40, no. 4 (April 2011): 454-61, doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.12.016.
67. Там же.
68. Там же. Акселерометры — решение неидеальное, с их помощью можно скорее недооценить интенсивность упражнений, чем переоценить.
69. Ryan Е. Rhodes and Gert-Jan de Bruijn, “How Big Is the Physical Activity Intention-Behaviour Gap? A Meta-Analysis Using the Action Control Framework”, British Journal of Health Psychology 18, no. 2 (May 2013): 296-309, doi: 10.1111 /bjhp. 12032.
70. Geoff Williams, “The Heavy Price of Losing Weight”, U.S. News & World Report, January 2, 2013, http://money.usnews.com/money/ personal-finance/articles/2013/01/02/the-heavy-price-of-losing-weight. Уильямс цитирует этот источник: “Gym Membership Statistics”, StatisticsBrain.com, 2012, http://www.statisticbrain.com/ gym-membership-statistics/.
71. В соответствии с данными sportsbusinessdaily.com, в Соединенных Штатах на спортивную одежду ежегодно тратится $30 млрд: Amber Good fellow, “The Athletic Apparel Industry: Fitness or Fashion?”, Digital Universe, 2013, http://universe.byu.edu/2013/07/30/the-athletic-apparel-industry-fitness-or-fashion/.
72. На эту тему написано множество книг и тысячи статей. Основные идеи в конспективном виде можно найти в книге: Mark Conner et al., Predicting Health Behaviour (Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill International, 2005). Еще одну полезную статью см.: Ralf Schwarzer, “Modeling Health Behavior Change: How to Predict and Modify the Adoption and Maintenance of Health Behaviors”, Applied Psychology 57, no. 1 (January 2008): 1-29, doi:10.1111/j.l464-0597.2007.00325.x.
73. Conner et al., “Predicting Health Behaviour”.
74. Marcel den Hoed et al., “Heritability of Objectively Assessed Daily Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98, no. 5 (November 18, 2013): 1317-25, doi:10.3945/ ajcn.113.069849.
75. Justin S. Rhodes, Theodore Garland, and Stephen C. Gammie, “Patterns of Brain Activity Associated with Variation in Voluntary Wheel-Running Behavior”, Behavioral Neuroscience 117, no. 6 (December 1, 2003): 1243-56, doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.117.6.1243.
76. Там же.
77. Rachel J. Burns et al., “A Theoretically Grounded Systematic Review of Material Incentives for Weight Loss: Implications for Interventions”, Annals of Behavioral Medicine 44, no. 3 (December 2012): 375-88, doi: 10.1007/S12160-012-9403-4.
78. Этой студенткой была Рейчел Бернс.
79. Rachel J. Burns, “Can We Pay People to Act Healthily? Testing the Relative Effectiveness of Incentive Dimensions and Underlying Psychological Mediators” (University of Minnesota, 2014).
80. He у меня одной был такой опыт. Бенджамин Лорр в своей книге описывает нечто подобное (хотя и более подробно). Benjamin Lorr, “Hell-Bent: Obsession, Pain, and the Search for Something Like Transcendence in Competitive Yoga” (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012).
81. О том, как важно, чтобы поощрение было немедленным, см.: С. В. Ferster and В. F. Skinner, “Schedules of Reinforcement” (East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957). Мне на глаза не попадалось научных доказательств, что на регулярность тренировок в течение длительного периода в большей степени влияет повышение уровня физической подготовки, нежели успехи в похудении. Я работаю над исследованием этого вопроса.
82. Carolina О. С. Werle, Brian Wansink, and Collin R. Payne, “Is It Fun or Exercise? The Framing of Physical Activity Biases Subsequent Snacking”, Marketing Letters (May 15, 2014), doi: 10.1007/sl 1002-014-9301-6.
83. Staub, “Instigation to Goodness”; Howland, Hunger, and Mann, “Friends Don’t Let Friends Eat Cookies”.
84. Staub, “Instigation to Goodness”; Howland, Hunger, and Mann, “Friends Don’t Let Friends Eat Cookies”.
85. Gollwitzer and Sheeran, “Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement”.
86. Sarah Milne, Sheina Orbell, and Paschal Sheeran, “Combining Motivational and Volitional Interventions to Promote Exercise Participation:
Protection Motivation Theory and Implementation Intentions”, British Journal of Health Psychology 7, no. Pt 2 (May 2002): 163-84, doi: 10.1348/135910702169420.
87. Там же.
88. Gollwitzer and Slice ran, “Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement”.
89. Williams, “The I lenvy Price of Losing Weight”.
90. Schwartz et al., “Healthier by Precommitment”.
91. E. Kahn et al., “The Effectiveness of Interventions to Increase Physical Activity: A Systematic Review”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 22, no. 4 (May 2002): 73-107, doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(02)00434-8; G. Neil Thomas et al., “I lealth Promotion in Older Chinese: A 12-Month Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial of Pedometry and ‘Peer Support”’, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 44, no. 6 (June 2012): 1157-66, doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318244314a.
ЗАКЛЮЧИТЕЛЬНЫЕ СЛОВА: ЕСТЬ ДИЕТА - СМЫСЛА НЕТ
1. Tomiyama et al., “Low Calorie Dieting Increases Cortisol”.
2. Glennon Doyle Melton, “Your Body Is Not Your Masterpiece”, Momastery blog, July 6, 2014, http://momastery.com/blog/2014/07/06/body-masterpiece/.
Назад: Благодарности
Дальше: Об авторе

Станислава
Книга