Примечания

Введение

1. H. Kohn The Twentieth Century: a Midway Account of the Western World (London, 1950), p. 65.

2. T. Todorov Hope and Memory: Refl ections on the Twentieth Century (London, 2003), pp. 75–7.

3. Todorov, Hope and Memory, p. 82.

4. A. Besançon ‘Nazisme et communisme, également criminels’, Vest européen, 35 (1997), pp. 3–6. See also W. Dlugoborski ‘Das Problem des Vergleichs von Nationalsozialismus und Stalinismus’ in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbeit, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), pp. 19–28; E. Jahn’Zum Problem der Vergleichbarkeit von Massenverfolgung und Massenvernichtung’ in ibid., pp. 29–51.

5. S. Courtois, N. Werth, et al. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, Mass., 1999).

6. D. Rayfi eld Stalin and his Hangmen (London, 2004). On Hitler, R. G. Waite The Psychopathie God: Adolf Hitler (New York, 1978); E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: A Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992); F. Redlich Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet (Oxford, 1999), esp. ch. 9.

7. A. Bullock Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (London, 1991).

8. On Hitler there is the standard two-volume biography by I. Kershaw Hitler: Hubris 1889–1936 (London, 1998) and Hitler: Nemesis 1936–1945 (London, 2000). On Stalin, D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991); S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003).

9. On Germany see M. Burleigh The Third Reich: a New History (London, 2000); on the Soviet Union, R. Service A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1997).

10. R. H. McNeal Stalin: Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p. 237.

11. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler (London, 1960), p. 100, entry for 26 February 1945.

12. H. Heiber and D. M. Glantz (eds) Hitler and His Generals: Military Conferences 1942–1945 (London, 2003), p. 388, meeting of the Führer with General Reinecke, 7 January 1944.

13. On Stalin see E. van Ree The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin (London, 2002). On Hitler, R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999); F. L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998).

14. On German infl ation G. Feldman The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Infl ation 1914–1924 (Oxford, 1993); on Soviet infl ation L. E. Hubbard Soviet Money and Finance (London, 1936), chs. 1, 4.

15. V. Serge, The Case of Comrade Tulayev (London, 1968), p. 88.

Глава 1

1. A. Hitler Mein Kampfe ed. D. C. Watt (London, 1969).

2. R. Service Lenin (London, 2000), pp. 462–5.

3. Service, Lenin, p. 467; E. Radzinsky Stalin (London, 1996), pp. 193–4.

4. Service, Lenin, p. 469.

5. B. Bazhanov Avec Staline dans le Kremlin (Paris, 1930), p. 43.

6. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), pp. 93–4; Bazhanov, Avec Staline dans le Kremlin, p. 48.

7. E. Hanfstaengl Hitler: the Missing Years (London, 1957), p. 108.

8. L. Gruchmann and R. Weber (eds) Der Hitler-Prozess 1924: Wortlaut der Hauptverhandlung vor den Volksgericht München

(4 vols, Munich, 1997) vol. i, pp. xxxv – xxxvii.

9. O. Gritschner Der Hitler-Prozess und sein Richter Georg Neithardt (Munich, 2001), p. 42.

10. Gruchmann and Weber, Der Hitler-Prozess, vol. iv, p. 1591.

11. Hanfstaengl, Hitler, p. 114; W. R. Hess (ed.) Rudolf Hess: Briefe, 1908–1933 (Munich 1987), p. 322, letter from Hess to Use Pröhl, 12 May 1924.

12. Gritschner, Der Hitler-Prozess, p. 62.

13. On Stalin, W. Duranty Stalin and Co: The Politburo and the Men who Rule Russia (London, 1949), p. 39; on Hitler, Imperial War

Museum, Speer Collection, Box 369, Part III, exploitation of Albert Speer, ‘Adolf Hitler’, 19 Oct 1945, p. 19. See too, T. Junge Until the Final Hour. Hitler’s Last Secretary (London, 2003), p. 130, who recalled Hitler’s comment after the bomb exploded at his headquarters in July 1944: ‘Well, ladies, everything turned out all right again. Yet more proof that Fate has chosen me for my mission.’ See too, W. S. Allen (ed.) The Infancy of Nazism: The Memoirs of Ex-Gauleiter Albert Krebs 1923–1933 (New York, 1976), p. 181: ‘Providence,’ Hess told Krebs in 1931, ‘has always inspired him [Hitler] to do the right thing.’

14. Duranty, Stalin and Co, p. 38.

15. On his medical history N. Romano-Petrova Stalin’s Doctor: Stalin’s Nurse: A Memoir (Princeton, NJ, 1984), pp. 5–6.

16. On Stalin’s many revolutionary nicknames see The Life of Stalin: a Symposium (London, 1930), p. 3; on Siberia A. V. Baikaloff I Knew Stalin (London, 1940), pp. 27–9.

17. See for example Joseph Stalin: a Short Biography (Moscow, 1949), p. 55, ‘Stalin was Lenin’s closest associate. He had direct charge of all the preparations for the insurrection [in 1917]’ or p. 76, ‘It was Stalin who directly inspired and organized the major victories of the Red Army [in the civil war]’. The same portrait appears in Short History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow, 1942) (so-called ‘Short Course’) pp. 206–7.

18. Joseph Stalin Works, vol. iii, p. 67, ‘What did we expect from the conference?’ in Soldatskaya Pravda, 6 May 1917.

19. Stalin, Works, vol. iii, p. 408, Speech at a meeting of the Central Committee, 16 October 1917.

20. R. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary 1879–1929 (New York, 1973), pp. 179–82.

21. Cited in Tucker, Stalin, pp. 178–9; Trotsky’s remark in D. Volkogonov Trotsky: The eternal revolutionary (London, 1996), p. 322.

22. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 29.

23. Tucker, Stalin, p. 181; S. Graham Stalin: an Impartial Study of the Life and Work of Joseph Stalin (London, 1931), p. 39.

24. M. Voslensky Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London, 1984), p. 47.

25. Duranty, Stalin and Co, p. 30; E. Lyons Stalin: Czar of all the Russians (London, 1940), pp. 176–7; Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 28, ‘He spoke haltingly, with a strong Georgian accent; his speech was dull and dry’; Graham, Stalin, pp. 117–19.

26. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 225–9.

27. Tucker, Stalin, p. 175. ‘There is a dogmatic Marxism,’ Stalin said in a debate in August 1917, ‘and a creative Marxism. I stand on the ground of the latter.’

28. The story of the cutlery in A. H. Birse Memoirs of an Interpreter (London, 1967), p. 160.

29. Tucker, Stalin, p. 212.

30. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 85, repeating a story told by Noah Dzhordania.

31. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 84.

32. Lyons, Stalin: Czar, p. 175; see too his account in E. Lyons Assignment in Utopia (London, 1937), pp. 381–9: ‘his swarthy face’ had, Lyons recalled, ‘a friendly, almost benignant look’.

33. Graham, Stalin, p. 119: ‘Calm and immobile sits Stalin,’ wrote one observer, ‘with the stone face of a prehistoric dragon, in which alone the eyes are living.’

34. Graham, Stalin, p. 79; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 21 off.

35. S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: the Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003), pp. 1–18 on the suicide of his second wife; A. Reiss (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago, 1993), pp. 177–8 on Stalin’s drinking habits: ‘Stalin didn’t drink much, although he pushed others to do it. Apparently he considered it a useful way to test people.’

36. Interview with Dmitri Volkogonov, episode 1, Russia’s War documentary, 1997.

37. Tucker, Stalin, p. 209.

38. Graham, Stalin, p. 93.

39. A. Amba I Was Stalin’s Bodyguard (London, 1952) p. 69.

40. E. W. Tennant True Account (London, 1957), pp. 182–3.

41. On his liking for the Austrian Jewish composer before 1914 see B. Hamann Hitler’s Vienna: a Dictator’s Apprenticeship (London, 1999), pp. 64–6, 349.

42. Hamman, Hitler’s Vienna, pp. 398–402; W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1977), pp. 27–31.

43. Maser, Letters and Notes, p. 45, letter from Hitler to Anna Popp, 20 October 1914.

44. Maser, Letters and Notes, pp. 52–5, letter from Hitler to Joseph Popp, 1 November 1914.

45. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 150.

46. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 186–7. See an analysis of Hitler’s psychological state in F. Redlich Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive

Prophet (New York, 1999), pp. 286–317.

47. A. Joachimsthaler Korrektur einer Biographie: Adolf Hitler 1908–1920 (Munich, 1989), pp. 250–53.

48. F. Reck-Malleczewen Diary of a Man in Despair (London, 1995), pp. 22–3.

49. H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), p. 68; see too the description by one of his interpreters, Eugen Dollmann, in Public Record Offi ce, London, WO 218/4475 Interrogation Report on SS Oberfüehrer Dollmann [n.d. Aug. 1945], pp. 1–2.

50. H. Hoffmann Hitler Was My Friend (London, 1955), p. 196.

51. Junge, Until the Final Hour, p. 44.

52. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 98.

53. IWM Speer Collection, Box S366, Evaluation Report 241, First Prelimnary Report on Hjalmar Schacht, 31 July 1945, p. 1.

54. A. Miskolczy Hitler’s Library (Budapest, 2003), ch. 1.

55. F.-L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 32–4, 56–64; E. Syring Hitler: seine politische Utopie (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), pp. 22–9, 51–93; J. Hermand

Der alte Traum vom neuen Reich: völkische Utopien und Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 147–56, 215ff.

56. See for example P. Pulzer The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (London, 1988), pp. 121ff., 195–207. In May 1918 the small Austrian ‘Workers’ Party’ changed its name to German National Socialist Workers’ Party. ‘National socialist’ ideas were central to much Austrian radical nationalism before 1914. See too, K. D. Bracher The German Dictatorship: the Origins, Structure and Consequences of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 72–9.

57. Kroll, Utopie als Ideologie, pp. 49–56; Syring, Hitler, pp. 40–4; P. Longerich The Unwritten Order: Hitler’s Role in the Final Solution (Stroud, 2001), pp. 15–26; K.-U. Merz Das Schreckbild: Deutschland und der Bolschewismus 1917 bis 1921 (Frankfurt am Main, 1995), pp. 457–71.

58. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, pp. 208–9; Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 96–7.

59. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 211.

60. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 269.

61. On Hitler’s medical history Redlich, Hitler: Diagnosis, pp. 223–54.

62. G. Ward Price I Know These Dictators (London, 1937), pp. 9–10; PRO, WO 218/4775, Dollmann interrogation, p. 1.

63. Ward Price, I Know These Dictators, pp. 16–17; see too the account in K. Krause Zehn Jahre Kammerdiener bei Hitler (Hamburg,

1990), pp. 14–21. On champagne over Pearl Harbor see Liddell Hart Archive, King’s College, Hechler Collection, fi le 1, ‘The enemy side of the hill’, p. 93.

64. Krause, Zehn Jahre, pp. 31–2; Junge, Until the Final Hour, pp. 67–70 on Hitler’s eating habits and hostility to meat-eaters.

65. Junge, Until the Final Hour, p. 114.

66. Miskolczy, Hitler’s Library, pp. 3–5.

67. E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: a Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992), p. 29.

68. Schwaab, Hitler’s Mind, p. 43.

69. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler: the Hitler-Bormann Documents (London, 1961), p. 95, entry for 25 February 1945.

70. Allen (ed.), Infancy of Nazism, p. 165.

71. Tucker, Stalin, pp. 309–10 on the collective leadership principle; p. 319 for Bukharin quotation.

72. Graham, Stalin, p. 121.

73. I. Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson Lenin’s Embalmers (London, 1998), pp. 11–12; N. Tumarkin Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. 174–5.

74. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 13–93, ‘The Foundations of Leninism’; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 316–24; R. W. Daniels The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), pp. 236–8.

75. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 48, ‘On the death of Lenin’, speech of 26 January 1924 to Second All-Union Congress of Soviets.

76. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, pp. 189–90, ‘Foundations of Leninism’, Pravda, May 1924.

77. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 47.

78. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, pp. 191–2.

79. Graham, Stalin, pp. 78–9.

80. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 104–5. On the contest with Trotsky see too R. W. Daniels Trotsky, Stalin and Socialism (Boulder, Colo., 1991); Y. Felshtinsky ‘Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin and the Left Opposition in the USSR, 1918–1928’, Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique, 31 (1990), pp. 570–73.

81. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 373, Trotskyism or Leninism?’ speech 19 November 1924; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 340–44.

82. Tucker, Stalin, pp. 353–4.

83. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 134.

84. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy’, p. 113.

85. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 135.

86. L. Trotsky My Life: an Attempt at an Autobiography (London, 1970), p. 554.

87. Stalin, On the Opposition, p. 865, speech at plenum of the Central Committee, 23 October 1927.

88. Stalin, On the Opposition, pp. 867, 883.

89. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 175–8; Zbarsky and Hutchinson, Lenin’s Embalmers, pp. 61–2 for the description of Bukharin. See too S. Cohen Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938 (New York, 1980) for the standard account.

90. On the emergence of the ‘right opposition’ see C. Merridale, ‘The Reluctant Opposition: the Right “Deviation” in Moscow 1928’, Soviet Studies, 41 (1989), pp. 382–400.

91. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 177.

92. Merridale, ‘Reluctant Opposition’, pp. 384–8; see too idem, Moscow Politics and the Rise of Stalin: the Communist Party in the Capital 1925–32 (London, 1990) esp. chs 2–3; R. Medvedev Nikolai Bukharin: The Last Years (New York, 1980), pp. 17–18.

93. A. Avtorkhanov Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party: a Study in the Technology of Power (Munich, 1959) pp. 117–18.

94. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 186; Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 124–5, 152–3. For a more critical assessment of the claim for a right ‘deviation’ see M. David-Fox ‘Memory, Archives, Politics. The Rise of Stalin in Avtorkhanov’s Technology of Power\ Slavic Review, 54 (1995), pp. 988–1003. On Molotov’s elevation, see D. Watson Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930–41 (London, 1996), pp. 27–44; R. G. Suny ‘Stalin and his Stalinism: power and authority in the Soviet Union, 1930–53’ in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 33–5.

95. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 156–7; J. Brooks Thank You, Comrade Stalin! Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 59–61; J. Gooding Rulers and Subjects: Government and People in Russia 1801–1991 (London, 1996), pp. 199–200.

96. D. Orlow The History of the Nazi Party: Volume I, 1919–1933 (Newton Abbot, 1973), p. 49.

97. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 52–3.

98. Hess, Rudolf Hess: Briefe, p. 363, letter from Hess to Klara and Fritz Hess, 2 March 1925. Speech in C. Vollnhals (ed.) Hitler: Reden, Schriften und Anordnungen Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933 (12 vols, Munich, 1992), i, p. 14–28.

99. P. Stachura Gregor Strasser and the Rise of Nazism (London, 1983), pp. 11–26; U. Kissenkoetter Gregor Strasser und die NSDAP (Stuttgart, 1978), pp. 22–5.

100. Stachura, Strasser, p. 38.

101. Hess, Rudolf Hess: Briefe, p. 368, letter from Hess to Klara and Fritz Hess, 24 April 1925.

102. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 68–70; I. Kershaw Hitler: Hubris 1889–1936 (London, 1998), pp. 274–7.

103. Stachura, Strasser, p. 51; see too Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, p. 24.

104. Stachura, Strasser, pp. 51–3; see on Hitler’s economic views R. Zitelmann Hitler: The Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), esp. part iv, pp. 198–269.

105. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 135–6, 143.

106. P. Longerich Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), pp. 15–33; Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 211–13.

107. K. Gossweiler Die Strasser-Legende (Berlin, 1994), p. 19; Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, pp. 41–7.

108. C. Fischer Stormtroopers: a Social, Economic and Ideological Analysis 1929–1935 (London, 1983) pp. 5–6; H. A. Turner (ed.) Hitler: Memoirs of a Confi dant (New Haven, Conn. 1985), pp. 28–31.

109. Stachura, Strasser, p. 101.

110. Stachura, Strasser, pp. 101–13; Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, pp. 123–30, 162–77.

111. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, p. 124.

112. S. Cohen Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917 (Oxford, 1985), ch. 3. See the discussion in S. Blank ‘Soviet Institutional Development during NEP: A Prelude to Stalinism’, Russian History, 9 (1982), pp. 325–46; Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution, pp. 398–401, 408–11; S. Farber Before Stalinism: the Rise and Fall of Soviet Democracy (Cambridge, 1990) pp. 149 ff. on the absence of any independent political activity long before Stalinism.

113. Stachura, Strasser, p. 124; Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin, p. 161.

114. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 41, speech to First Ail-Union Conference of Leading Personnel of Socialist Industry, 4 February 1931.

115. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 42.

116. H. Kuromiya Stalin’s Industrial Revolution: Politics and Workers, 1928–1932 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 5.

117. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 17; J. Hughes ‘Capturing the Russian Peasantry: Stalinist Grain Procurement Policy and the “Urals-Siberian” Method’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), pp. 77–8. See too J. Hughes Stalin, Siberia and the crisis of the New Economic Policy (Cambridge, 1991), esp. chs 5–6.

118. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, p. 87; J. Hughes ‘Re-evaluating Stalin’s Peasant Policy 1928–30’ in J. Pallot (ed.) Transforming Peasants: Society, State and the Peasantry 1861–1930 (London, 1998), pp. 242–50, 255–6.

119. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, pp. 80–81; M. Lewin Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: a Study of Collectivization (New York, 1975) chs 16–17.

120. R. C. Nation Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy 1917–1991 (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p. 61; Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 15; on the fate of bourgeois experts see N. Jasny Soviet Economists of the Twenties (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 119, 127, 144.

121. R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds) The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union 1913–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 113–14, 290.

122. L. Viola Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford, 1996), pp. 105, 139–40; see too T. Macdonald ‘A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin’s Russia’ in L. Viola (ed.) Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s (Ithaca, NY, 2002), pp. 84–108.

123. Viola, Peasant Rebels, pp. 171–2.

124. Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 68.

125. R. W. Davies, O. V. Khlevniuk, E. A. Rees, L. P. Kosheleva and L. A. Rogovaya (eds) The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence

1931–1936 (New Haven, Conn. 2003) pp. 180–81, letter from Stalin to Kaganovich, 11 August 1932. On the famine see S. G. Wheatcroft ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s’ in J. A. Getty and R. Manning (eds) Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993) pp. 278–89. Extrapolations from the demographic data suggest excess mortality of 4–5 million in total attributable to famine and its effects.

126. J. Rossman ‘A Workers’ Strike in Stalin’s Russia’ in Viola (ed.), Contending with Stalinism, pp. 45–6; J. Haslam ‘Political Opposition to Stalin and the Origins of the Terror in Russia, 1932–1936’, The Historical Journal, 29 (1986), pp. 396–9; B. Starkov ‘Trotsky and Ryutin: from the history of the anti-Stalin resistance in the 1930s’ in T. Brotherstone and P. Dukes (eds) The Trotsky Reappraisal (Edinburgh, 1992), pp. 71–3.

127. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 21.

128. R. G. Suny ‘Stalin and his Stalinism’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 46–7.

129. Lewin, Russian Peasants, p. 448.

130. R. Gaucher Opposition in the USSR, 1917–1967 (New York, 1969), p. 270.

131. The standard work is H. James The German Slump: Politics and Economics 1924–1936 (Oxford, 1986); see too J. von Krüdener (ed.) Economic Crisis and Political Collapse: the Weimar Republic 1924–1933 (Oxford, 1990).

132. S. Haffner Defying Hitler: a Memoir (London, 2002), p. 68.

133. D. Schumann Politisches Gewalt in der Weimarer Republik 1919–1933 (Essen, 2000), pp. 320, 335–7.

134. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 33–53, 62–75. ‘Our Party,’ Hitler announced in a speech in 1920, ‘must have a revolutionary character’; or in 1921, The salvation of Germany can only come… through revolution’ (p. 62).

135. T. Abel Why Hitler Came into Power: an Answer Based on the Original Life Stories of Six Hundred of his Followers (New York, 1938), p. 93.

136. Haffner, Defying Hitler, p. 71.

137. Stachura, Strasser, p. 76.

138. See P. Fritzsche Germans into Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), pp. 209ff. In general see C. Fischer The Rise of the Nazis (Manchester, 2002); M. Broszat Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany (Leamington Spa, 1987); H. A. Turner Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power: January 1933 (London, 1996).

139. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 1–2.

140. J. Biesemann Das Ermächtigungsgesetz als Grundlage der Gesetzgebung im nationalsozialistischen Staat (Münster, 1985), pp. 279–82.

141. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 354.

142. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 198.

143. J. Toland Adolf Hitler (New York, 1976), p. 361; H. Burden The Nuremberg Party Rallies: 1923–39 (London, 1967), pp. 76, 80–81.

144. Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, p. 184. By mid-1934 the SA numbered 4.5 million. On the background see K. Heiden The Führer (New York, 1944), pp. 570–82; Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, pp. 500–507.

145. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, p. 517.

146. Details in H.-G. Seraphim (ed.) Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Roenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40 (Göttingen, 1956), pp. 33–5.

147. M. Domarus Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945: Band I Triumph (Munich, 1965), p. 405.

148. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, p. 406.

149. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, pp. 424–5.

150. A. Knight Who Killed Kirov? The Kremlin’s Greatest Mystery (New York, 1999), p. 115.

151. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 172–4; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 200.

152. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 169–70; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 205–6.

153. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? p. 183.

154. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 197–8; Getty and Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 45–9; M. Lenoe ‘Did Stalin Kill Kirov and Does it Matter?’, Journal of Modern History, 74 (2002), pp. 352–80.

155. On the ‘Lex Kirov’ Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 208.

156. V. M. Berezhkov At Stalin’s Side (New York, 1994), p. 10.