Приложение В. Сьюзен Блэкмор о паранормальных исследованиях
Статья Сьюзен Блэкмор (S. Blackmore, 2008) «Паранормальное» в журнале The Edge. Прочитано 18 февраля 2008 г. по адресу
Известный исследователь паранормального Сьюзен Блэкмор рассказывает о том, какие изменения претерпел на протяжении многих лет жизни ее интерес к паранормальному. Ее рассказ типичен для целой группы очень способных исследователей, посвятивших немалое время и усилия исследованию паранормальных явлений. В этой статье многое заслуживает внимания. Это и источники ее энтузиазма и страстного интереса к паранормальному, и первоначальная враждебность к скептикам, и необычайная верность принципам воспроизводимости, и постоянный поиск качественных исследовательских методик. Посмотрите, как настойчиво она пыталась объяснить отсутствие результатов аргументами ad hoc, как неустанно искала новые объяснения и методики, которые помогли бы обнаружить пси буквально за углом. Обратите внимание, какое впечатление произвели на нее аргументы ad hoc другого исследователя. Но самое главное — это постоянная готовность исследователя задавать вопросы, бесстрашно и честно.
Сьюзен Блэкмор, психолог и скептик; автор книги Consciousness: An Introduction.
Паранормальное
Представьте меня, пожалуйста, в Оксфорде в 1970 г.: зеленая студентка, захваченная интеллектуальной атмосферой, живописные одеяния хиппи, комнаты, наполненные ароматами благовоний, бессонные ночи, утренние лекции и универсальный расширитель сознания — марихуана.
Я вступила в Общество психических исследований и сразу же влюбилась в оккультизм, медиумизм и паранормальное — идеи, так соблазнительно противоречившие физиологии и психологии, которые я изучала. Однажды ночью случилась очень странная вещь. Мы сидели с друзьями, курили, слушали музыку; я наслаждалась ощущением быстрого движения по темному туннелю к яркому свету впереди. Неожиданно кто-то из друзей заговорил со мной. Ответить я не смогла.
— Где ты, Сью? — спросил он, и внезапно я вроде бы оказалась на потолке, глядя вниз.
— Астральная проекция! — подумала я. Затем я (или некое воображаемое летающее «я») пустилась лететь, пролетела по Оксфорду, над полями и лесами и дальше. Больше двух часов я проваливалась из одной странной сцены в другую, испытывала одно мистическое состояние за другим, терялась в пространстве и времени и в конце концов потеряла даже себя. Этот необычайный опыт изменил всю мою жизнь. Все в нем казалось ярче, более реальным и исполненным смысла, чем что-либо в обычной жизни, и мне очень захотелось понять свое тогдашнее состояние.
Но я поспешила и сделала из своих переживаний совершенно неверные выводы. Несложно, в общем-то, понять: я решила, что мой дух покидал тело и что этот опыт доказывает все, что угодно — жизнь после смерти, телепатию, ясновидение и еще много чего. Я решила с великолепной уверенностью, присущей только юности, стать парапсихологом и доказать всем, что наши узколобые лекторы были неправы. Я нашла для себя место, где можно было защитить степень доктора философии по этой тематике, заработала денег преподаванием и начала тестировать собственную теорию ЭСВ, основанную на свойствах памяти. И вот тут-то меня ждало потрясение: мне пришлось полностью изменить свое мнение — и веру, и все остальное.
Я проводила эксперимент за экспериментом. Я проверяла телепатию, предвидение будущего и ясновидение — результаты получались лишь случайно. Я обучала товарищей-студентов техникам визуализации и снова проверяла их — случайные попадания. Я тестировала пары близнецов — случайные попадания. Я работала в игровых группах и детских садах с маленькими детьми (видите ли, их телепатическое от природы сознание еще не сковано образованием] — случайные попадания. Я научилась гадать по картам таро и проверила результаты — случайные попадания.
Время от времени я получала значимые результаты. Какой восторг! Я реагировала на это так, как, по-моему, должен реагировать любой ученый: искала ошибки, проверяла статистические расчеты, повторяла эксперименты. Но каждый раз я либо находила ошибку, благодаря которой результат получился положительным, либо не могла повторить результат. Но, если мой энтузиазм начинал спадать или я начинала испытывать сомнения в своей первоначальной вере, каждый раз оказывалось, что есть еще возможности — каждый раз кто-нибудь говорил: «Но ты должна попробовать XXX». Прошло, вероятно, три или четыре года, прежде чем все возможные XXX исчерпались.
Я прекрасно помню момент, когда в голове у меня что-то щелкнуло (или, может быть, мне следует сказать: «Кажется, я помню…» — на тот случай, если это воспоминание ложное]. Я лежала в ванне, пытаясь в очередной раз втиснуть свои нулевые результаты в теорию паранормального, как вдруг мне впервые пришло в голову, что я, может быть, не права, а правы мои старые учителя. Может быть, паранормальных явлений вообще не существует.
Насколько я помню, мне потребовалось некоторое время, чтобы как следует усвоить эту пугающую мысль. Я продолжала проводить эксперименты и получать случайные результаты. Парапсихологи называли меня «экспериментатором, при котором пси не работает»; имелось в виду, что я не получаю паранормальных результатов, потому что недостаточно сильно верю в паранормальное. Я изучала результаты других людей и находила там ошибки, а то и откровенную подтасовку фактов. К тому моменту, когда моя диссертация была готова, я стала скептиком.
До этого вся моя судьба и вся моя личность была завязана на паранормальное. Я успела отказаться от вполне приличного места, где можно было защитить докторскую степень, и погубила свои шансы на академическую карьеру (как любил говорить мой наставник в Оксфорде]. Я охотилась за привидениями, гонялась за полтергейстом, училась на ведьму, посещала спиритические церкви и не отрываясь глядела в хрустальные шары. Но со всем этим пора было кончать.
Решение было принято, а остальное оказалось очень просто. Как многие крупные перемены в жизни, эта перемена очень пугала меня, но теперь, при взгляде назад, она кажется совсем нестрашной. Вскоре я стала «скептиком по вызову». Я появлялась во всевозможных телешоу, объясняла, как работают иллюзии, почему телепатии не существует и как объяснить околосмертные переживания через процессы, происходящие в мозгу.
Теперь у меня осталось лишь что-то вроде открытости к любым достоверным свидетельствам. Как бы крепко я ни верила в какую-то теорию (о сознании, мемах или чем угодно еще), как бы тесно ни была связана с какой-то позицией или утверждением, я знаю, что мир не перевернется, если мне придется изменить свои взгляды.
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Приложение Б
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Именной указатель
А Блэкмор, С. 205, 206, 308, 315, 348, 349, Аарнио, К. 45 369, 507
Азимов, Айзек 123, 124,451 Бойль, Роберт 110
Александр Великий 92 Бонферрони, К.Э. 209,210
Алеман, А. 317,322 Браге, Тихо 92,101
Али, Мохаммед 179 БРаУ»’ Д- 341
Алкок, Дж. Э. 386, 389 БРаУн С 244–246, 345, 353
Аллеи, A.A. 422 Браунстейн, М. 110,115
Аманнио. М. 283 Бронсон, Г1. 431, 432
Амин, Иди 316 Бром, ар, Лоран 299
Андерсон, Д. 200 БУ™а 64' 349
Ардуино, К. 283 Бургиньон, Э. 325
Аристотель 168,398 Бургус, Пагрисия 271
Бэкон, Фрэнсис 380
Армстронг, Дж. У. 114
Арнольд, Кеннет 186 В
Аттила, гунн 316 Вайзман, 1’. 356
0 Вейз, Л. 283 г,… Верини, Дж. 518
Ьаначек, см. (_.тив Шоу
Барнум, Финеас Тейлор 516 Верн, Дж. Н. 283
— Виренк, Ришар 299
Барретг, С. 426 — Вирт, Д.П. 433, 434
Барретг, Уильям Флетчер сэр 365, 366 с — … Вон, Л. 167
Ьартнетт, Беатрис 111 с л ne Вудс, Тайгер 179
Басси, Агостино 175
Бейкер, Эдди, Мэри 421 Г
Белофф, Дж. 380, 393 Галилей 92, 101, 316
Бенедетти, Ф 282, 283, 285 Галтон, Ф. 431
Бенсон, Г. 295,437–439 Ганди, Мохандас 110,484
Берд, Р. 435, 436 Ганеман, Самуэль 407
Бернс, У. 156 Гань, Т.Чж. 293
Бернштейн, М. 359 Гарфилд, Джеймс 193
Бёш, X. 381, 389 Гекели, Т. 80
Бичер, Г.К. 275 Геллер, У. 127–129, 243, 244, 261, 345, Блейн, Дэвид 342 355
Блэкберн, Д. 366 Гильотен, Ж. 57, 61 итлер, Адольф 62, 240, 261 лоор, П. 264 оклей, М. 178–180,203,204 6р 455 бртнер, Марджо 423 уд, А.Дж. 382 удипи, Гарри 342–344, 516 удсои, Дж. Т. 430 улд, С.Дж. 65, 454, 455
X (аннингор, Джозеф 342 (арвин, Чарлз 175, 431, 446, 447, 453
I Арк, Жанна 316 [еМилль, С.Б. 250
де Деус 419, 519 ixep, М. 63 *нер, Карл 367 исус 54, 64, 219, 233, 352, 357, 373, 421, 428, 429, 443, 453, 515 лия 428 игем, Юнис 409 инокентий VIII, папа 61 ршш, Х.Дж. 128, 351, 364, 372, 383385, 387–389, 517, 519 флин, Джордж 458 флсон, С. 180–182 iprep, Дж. 443
Кейн, Элиша Кент 339 Келлер, Елена 256 Кеннеди, Джои Ф. 44, 192, 193 Кеннеди, Роберт 240 Киш-, Л. 242, 245, 480 Кирлиан, Семен 415 Киттель, Ч. 212 Клеопатра 64, 270 Клопфер, Б. 273 Кобб, Л. 277 Колумб, Христофор 55 Конан Дойль, Артур 343 Коперник, Николай 92, 101 Косслии, С.М. 377 Крёмер, Г. 212 Кригер, Долорес 411 Круз, Том 518 Крюкофф, М.В. 434 Кул, Надин 271 Кульман, Кэтрин 422 Кун, Р.Л. 49 Кун, Т.С. 170 Купер, Джон 366 Комби, Маргарет 256 Кэрролл, Роберт Тодд 99, 144, 156,2 431, 432 Кэрролл P.C. 364, 366, 371 Кюблер-Росс, Э.Л. 346, 347
Л
Лавуазье, Ангуан 56, 57, 61 Ладен, Усама Бен 76 Ланкастер, 1’. 246 Ларёй, Ф. 317,322 Ларсон, Крис 107, 498 Леви-мл., Уолтер 369 Лейбовиц, Л. 440–442 Ленгенхагер, Б. 315 Ленном, Джон 110, 484 Линдберг, Чарлз 198 Линдеман, М. 45, 63, 413, 414 Линкольн, Авраам 98, 192, 193, 259 Ломмель, П. вал 347 Лофтус, Э.Ф. 257, 271 Людовик XVI, король 57 Лютер, Мартин 316
М Псифшш, У 322
Магеллан, Фернан 115 Пифагор 316
Майерс, Д.Дж. 194,437,439 Плиний Старший 110
Мак, Рональд 256 Попофф, Питер 422, 424, 425
Макдоннелл, Джеймс 390, 391 Поппер, К. 162
Макдоноу, Б.Э. 376 Прааг, Джеймс ван 246, 247, 345, 353
Маккинли, Уильям 193 Прайс, Д.Д. 283
Маккуин, Стив 110,484 Птолемей 92
Максимилиан I 55 Путхофф, Х.Э. 244, 370, 371
Мани, Ф. 404 р
Маркс, Д. 371 Радин, Д. 43,372,373,380–382,386
Мастерс, К С. 430, 439,519 Райн, Дж. Б. 501
Мерфи, Браиди 359 Рай|() дж р 3 вв-3в9, 380, 501
Месмер, Франц Антон 56,57,406,414
Миллер Ф. 24 Райс, Т У. 55
Миллер, У. 217 Редфилд, Дж. 192
Моро, Кристоф 299 Резерфорд, Бет 271
Моррисон, Джим 110,484 Рейган, Рональд 255, 443
Моузли, Б.Дж. 277, 449
Моултон, С.Т. 377, 347
Моцарт, Вольфганг 316 Робертс, Орал 422
Муди-мл., P.A. мл. 347, 348 Робинс, Аполло 342
Мухаммед 64, 316, 352 Робинсон, К. 248
Мэнсон, Чарлз 316 Робинсон, М.Э. 283
Мюллер, Дж. 149 Робинсон, Пэг 422
Мюррей, Г.А. 198 Росси, Ричард 422
|_| Роуленд, Й. 341
Наполеон 240, 270 Ру’ Д, дье 299
Скиннер, Ь.Ф. 292
П Смит, Г. 248
Павел, Св. 316 Смит, Дж. Г. 450
Павлов, Иван 281 Смит, Джозеф 352
Налмер, Д.Д. 408 Смит, Джордж 366
Парк, Р.Л. 13 °Cмит, Дж. X. 450
Паскаль, Блез 316, 454 Смит, Й. 110,457,460–463,468, Паулос, Дж. П. 197 483–485, 487, 488 [они и Теллер 59,242,341 Сокал, А. 124
Сократ 51, 161 Снилманс, Г.А. 43 °Cион, Шелби 456 Стивенсон, И. 357, 358 Стивенсон, Р.Л. 256 Стэнфорд, Р.Дж. 363 Сунь, Й. 293
т
Тай, Вирджиния 359 Тарг, Р. 244, 370,371,431–433 Тернбулл, K.M. 220 Томпсон, Джонни 341 Томпсон, Давид 248 Тросянко, Т. 205, 206, 308 Труцди, М. 27
У
Уатт, К.Э. 128, 351, 364, 372, 383–385, 387–389, 517, 519 Уильямс, Винус 179 Уоррен, Лоррейн 248 Уоррен, Ч.Э. 376 Усуи, Микао 410 Утис, Дж. 386, 388 Уэллс, Г.Дж. 303, 304 Уэллс, Дэвид 248
Ф
Феба, мадам 136, 188–190 Феррари, Д.Ч. 380, 381 Филипс, П. 391 Фокс, сестры 338–340 Форер, Бертрам Р. 214 Форлано, Дж. 178 Фошар, Пьер 110 Фоэт, Вилли 299
Франклин, Бенджамин 57, 61, 259 Фрейд, Зигмунд 14, 44, 162, 192, 243, 253, 254, 270, 316
X
Хаббард, Рои 518 Хайман, Р. 223, 353, 374, 375, 389 Хайнс, Т. 364, 426
Харрис, С. 456
Харрис, У.С. 52, 357, 435, 437
Харрисон, Джордж 256
Хаффорд, Дэвид Дж. 312, 313
Хендерсон, Б. 457, 458, 503
Хестон, Ч. 250
Хинн, Бенни 422
Хитченс, К. 65
Ходж, Д. Р. 439
Холдейн, Дж. Б.С. 453
Холт, Дж. 195
Хонортон, Ч. 375
Хусейн, Саддам 76
Хьюм, Д. 103
Хэе, У. 144
ц
Цицерон 448 Цугер, Б. 264
ч
Ча, К.Й. 433 Чайлд, А Л. 388 Чонра, Д. 192
ш
Шварц, Г. 83, 243, 244, 246, 247, 355, 514, 515, 519 Шекспир, У. 27, 98, 192, 211, 212 Шермер, М. 225, 247 Шоу, Стив 341, 390, 391, 424
Э
Эванс 380
Эдвард, Дж. 242, 243, 345, 353, 355 Эдвардс, Майк 390, 391 Эдвардс, Г1. 357
Эйнштейн, А. 20, 42, 80, 98, 134, 169, 170, 250, 259, 352, 514 Эйсенк, Г. 178 Энгли, Эрнест 422 Эрве, Паскаль 299 Эрсон, X. 315
ю
Юнг, Карл 192, 316
notes
